Conformity in Society Exposed in Shirley Jackson’s The...

Conformity in Society Exposed in Shirley Jackson’s The Lottery The Lottery, a short story by the nonconformist author Shirley Jackson, represents communities, America, the world, and conformist society as a whole by using setting and most importantly symbolism with her inventive, cryptic writing style. It was written in 1948, roughly three years after the liberation of a World War II concentration camp Auschwitz. Even today, some people deny that the Holocaust ever happened. Jackson shows through the setting of the story, a small, close knit town, that even though a population can ignore evil, it is still prevalent in society (for example: the Harlem Riots; the terrorist attacks on September 11; the beating of Rodney King.)†¦show more content†¦Jackson is showing how a person would rather sacrifice their own family than speak up to or question authority. Rosa Park is a hero to the African American Community. She is the only black woman out of millions who had been sitting on the back of a bus for years, and actually had the guts to challenge so-called authority. The setting of the small town is the easiest way to represent society’s unwillingness to change and the stupidity of people, as a whole, refusing to question something that has been going on since Day One. The town square is where the citizens of the village meet every June 27 before noon dinner to conduct the lottery. This place, the assumed center of town, the most important part of the village, is set between the Bank and the Post Office. The Post Office symbolizes government and the Bank represents money. This leads the in-depth reader to question today’s society: are government and money at the center of a person’s life? Are these two of the most important reasons people refuse to change? By using the last name â€Å"Delacroix† (French for â€Å"of the cross†), Jackson symbolizes religion as well. The youngest Delacroix, Dickie, made a huge pile of stones in the corner just before the lottery began. Jackson is t rying to slyly show the reader that religion is hypocritical and for the conformist. How many Christians (people of God, the â€Å"Father†) only attend mass on Christmas and

The Poem Facing It By Yusef Komunyakaa - 1077 Words

The poem â€Å"Facing it† by Yusef Komunyakaa has a tone that will haunt a reader well after they are done reading it. The poem is about the author, a veteran visiting the Vietnam veteran’s memorial for the very first time. The author describes the emotional impact the visit has on him. The author uses lines such as â€Å"I said I wouldn’t, dammit: No tears.† (Komunyakaa, 1947, line 3-4) and â€Å"I’m stone. I’m flesh† (Komunyakaa, 1947, line 5) to drive home the emotion and deep feelings in the poem. Throughout the poem the author utilizes personification to add to the effect and the tone of the poem as well. The author talks about the memorials stone as if it were alive. He uses the line â€Å"I turn this way –the stone lets me go.† (Komunyakaa, 1947, line 9). This is an example of the personification the author uses to help bring the stone to life. The author feels the stone truly has a strong hold on him despite o nly being an object. The memories and feelings that the memorial brings forth from the veteran are the driving force to the tone of the poem. The poem is heavy and heartbreaking. The use of personification helps exemplify the pain that Komunyakaa is feeling. At one point the author states â€Å"I touch the name Andrew Jackson; I see the booby traps white flash†. (Komunyakaa, 1947, line 17-18). The author states this to clearly give the stone a feeling of life. The stone is its own entity and has the capability of affecting the veteran at almost a human level. The author talks aboutShow MoreRelatedThe Poem Facing It By Yusef Komunyakaa744 Words   |  3 PagesThe poem â€Å"Facing it† by Yusef Komunyakaa has a tone that will haunt a reader well after they are done reading it. The poem is about the author, a veteran visiting the Vietnam veteran’s memorial for the very first time. The author describes the emotional impact the visit has on him. The author uses lines such as â€Å"I s aid I wouldn’t, dammit: No tears.† (Komunyakaa, 1947, line 3-4) and â€Å"I’m stone. I’m flesh† (Komunyakaa, 1947, line 5) to drive home the emotion and deep feelings in the poem. ThroughoutRead MoreAnalysis Of Poem Facing It By Yusef Komunyakaa1063 Words   |  5 Pagesthe most prevalent emotions in literature. In his poem, â€Å"Facing It,† Yusef Komunyakaa tells his experience with war and how it has affected him. The poem begins with the author experiencing a loss of identity as he is at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. Then, he experiences nostalgia whilst reminiscing his past. Lastly, he experiences flashbacks that deter his ability to distinguish the past from the present. Komunyakaa wastes no time in loading his poem with themes. He touches on grief, war, gainingRead MoreAnalysis of Facing It by Yusef Komunyakaa Essay example667 Words   |  3 PagesAnalysis of Facing it by Yusef Komunyakaa Cruel and terrible events forever leave a mark on our memory. Especially, when these events are directly related to person, the memory reproduces every second of what happened. Unfortunately, humanity fully cognized the term of war. Facing it by Yusef Komunyakaa reveals another several sides of the war. Poem tells the reader about which consequences, the war left and how changed peoples lives. The hero identifies itself with the Vietnam VeteransRead MoreWar : An Unavoidable, Haunting, And Educational Event1149 Words   |  5 Pages Haunting, and Educational Event â€Å"In Flanders Fields,† by John McCrae, â€Å"In Time of War,† by W.H. Auden, and â€Å"Facing It,† by Yusef Komunyakaa all share a theme of war. The symbols and settings used in these poems illustrate the theme of war and its hardships clearly. Last, the authors all have biographical backgrounds surrounding past wars. The symbols used in all three of these poems closely relate to the idea of war. In â€Å"In Flanders Fields,† McCrae uses the symbols of crosses in the field toRead MoreUse of Imagery and Figurative Language in â€Å"Facing It† by Yusef Komunyakaa1031 Words   |  5 PagesUse of Imagery and Figurative Language in â€Å"Facing It† by Yusef Komunyakaa In his poem, â€Å"Facing It†, Yusef Komunyakaa describes his ambivalent emotions towards the Vietnam War of which he was a veteran. Reflecting on his experiences, Yusef expresses his conflicting feelings about the Vietnam War and his feelings about how racism has played a part in America’s history. By using visual imagery and metaphoric language throughout the poem, Yusef is able to reflect the sad and confused emotions heRead MoreAnalysis Of Facing It By Yusef Komunyakaa And Dulce Et Decorum Est847 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Facing it† by Yusef Komunyakaa and â€Å"Dulce et Decorum Est† by Wilfred Owen, are 2 great poems written in the perspective of soldiers who experienced disturbance of war. In â€Å"Dulce et Decorum Est† Owen talks about his experience in World War 1, taking the reader inside the actual event and giving them the insight on his feelings watching his fellow troops die. In â€Å"Facing it†, Komunyakaa also discusses his feeling towards his fellow troops who didn’t survive the attack but he also sheds light on hisRead MoreLangston Hughes And Yusef Komunyakaa And My Black Face Fades Essay1693 Words   |  7 PagesLangston Hughes and Yusef Komunyakaa, much like any two poets when compared, are very different. However, they composed two poems that are very similar. Langston Hughes’s poem, â€Å"Theme for English B†, and Yusef Komunyakaa’s, â€Å"Facing it†, can be compared in many different ways. The most outstanding similarity of the two poem’s, is the fact the speakers are outsiders and very much unlike everyone else in the poem because of their race. With the quotes â€Å"I am twenty-two, colored, born in Winston-Salem†Read Moreâ€Å"Facing It† by the American black poet Yusef Komunyakaa of Shreveport is written with the use of600 Words   |  3 Pagesâ€Å"Facing It† by the American black poet Yusef Komunyakaa of Shreveport is wri tten with the use of visual images. Yusef Komunyakaa writes about one of his many trips to the Vietnams Veterans Memorial in Washington DC. This Memorial is a long polished slab of black reflectant granite with the names of all the US soldiers who lost their lives in Vietnam. Yusef says â€Å"my black face fades, hiding inside the black granite†. Here Yusef uses his reflection in the wall to bring the reader back to the warRead MoreFacing It By Yusef Komunyakaa1158 Words   |  5 PagesIn the poem â€Å"Facing It†, by the poet Yusef Komunyakaa, he himself is the one who is speaking, the poem is about his own life experience at the Vietnam Memorial. The way a person can tell if the own poet of the poem is the speaker is by the use of first person. In this case, the poet uses words like â€Å"I† and â€Å"I’m† that support the fact that he is the speaker. The Vietnam War was a Historical event taken place in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Which was on e of the first War that African Americans wereRead MoreNostalgic Memories In Yusef Komunyakaas Facing It Essay1499 Words   |  6 PagesNostalgic Memories In Facing It Just as farmers brand their livestock in order to claim them as their own, humans do the same when it comes to important events. There are certain moments in ones life when an incident is so powerful, emotionally or physically, that it leaves a mark on a person forever. The branded symbol that is left could be positive or negative, but there is no doubt that it has caused a wave of all-encompassing feeling. And although when looking back at the past

Principle Trends

Question: Identify and describe the principal trends driving corporate ethics and sustainability. Answer: Sausan McPherson who is the CEO of McPherson and is a serial connector along with marketer and corporate social responsibility expert wrote the article. She focuses to give strength in the five corporate ethics and sustainability in the year of 2016. The first point focus on the success in the climate conference would be the greatest concern for the private sector. Organizations have taken steps to curb the actions against the climate change. Secondly she focus is on social justice as it no longer considered as the limit for the business. The changes will focus on brands to take leadership role in transgender conversation. The company like HM and Clean Clear would include the transgender models. She further, focuses to continue the leadership role for the growing inequality in countries. The companies in the current trend would follow the commitments of the organization. She further explained the trends in terms of ethics and sustainability focusing on transparency of the brands. Lu xury brands are also becoming transparent. She further gives emphasis on the brand of Diana Verde Nieto as they included the passing of Modern Slavery Act. They UNs Sustainable Development Goals and COP 21 are moving the business models to more of legal obligations, which would increase the demand from stakeholders for more transparency actions (Forbes.com 2016). Fourth point she give emphasis on collaboration as key to success. The further added that expectation of the brands to operate through sustainable and ethical ways. Major brands planned to collaborate to address inequality through hiring employees who are out of school and currently working. The fifth point where the writer gave focus is on the importance of the storytelling as a requirement. She explained as it would make an addition of creativity for the company. The article focus that the trends expect to produce creativity, collaborative and inclusive in terms of maintains the ethics and sustainability of the organizati on (Forbes.com 2016). The topic for Assessment 2 is about Ernest Young. Both the topic assesses the importance of corporate and ethical responsibility of the organization. However, the topic chosen in assessment 2 is much more detail. Both the assessment focus to provide commitment it builds of the better environment of the world. The assessment gives the view about the importance and the need of sustainability in organization. It establishes a connection of sustainability and ethical approach. The importance of the organization to adopt policy regarding the same is main focus for both the assessment (Kulkarni 2013).3. Recommendations to the author regarding the article or the way it has been written. What are the thoughts and comments about the contents objectivity or the material findings were researched and published. The article of part one has been presented with clear and informative content. However the article focused only on a single year diminishing the future trends. Further, the five points a dded are presented with set of examples that makes a clear understanding for the reader but it missed some vital points (Kulkarni 2013). Points like SME s are setting larger role in the international market. Besides that it needs to give more focus on the stakeholders engagement to achieve the change. The company could have given a view about the trends of past years comparing it with present. It would have enabled the reader to understand the trends and shifts of ethics and sustainability in current scenario. The objectivity of the article need to be more focused on the topic (Sen, G.B., 2014). Part two: Appraising CRS from the perspective of Range of stakeholder interests at a national and international level Summaries the article briefly Ezekiel S. Asemah, Ruth A. Okpanachi and LEO O.N Edegoh wrote the article on business advantage of corporate social practice. It focuses to give the benefits that stakeholders enjoy because of CSR. The paper concentrates on two theories stakeholders theory which gives details on the responsibility of the CRS to take effective care for the stakeholders. Another point where they give emphasis is the social responsibility theory. On the other hand the benefits of the stakeholders would provide brand reputation and reduction of the operation cost and attract its new customers. It will get possible as stakeholders would receive the interest from Csr and would provide appraising for the same (Iiste.org 2016). How the article appraises the CSR from the perspective of stakeholders at national and international level CSR engages the shareholders and the stakeholders in collaboration to engage in the positional risk, build credibility, and trust in the society. The corporate social responsibility is to preach where the interest of the stakeholders in the organizations and in the societies to apply the strategy during the time of execution. Further the article gives focus on goodwill of the stakeholders which in return enhance the performance of the organization in financial and in other areas. Sustainability in the organizations activities includes the social and the environmental concern in the operations and the stakeholders. The article further shows several types of programs in the activities of CSR. The first among it is the concern about the health and wellness of the employee. The article further gives emphasis on the benefits of the stakeholders through its ethical responsibilities and the legal responsibilities. Further they give emphasis on the economic responsibility for its stakeholder s (Iiste.org 2016). Evaluate the relevance of the article with the topic chosen in assessment 2 Assessment 2 in the topic focuses on the company of Ernest and Yong India. Both the Assessments focus to benefits of the stakeholders that they can achieve from the sustainability. Corporate Social Responsibility is important in both the assessment. It makes an impact about the benefits that the organization needs to focus for developing the importance of stakeholders in the organization. Both the topic gives importance on stakeholders and gives them priorities. They focus on the CSR and the establishment for the benefits of the organization (Iiste.org 2016).4. Recommendations to the author regarding the article or the way it has been written. What are the thoughts and comments about the contents objectivity or the material findings were researched and published. The article gives a detailed analysis. However, it has taken many concepts all together to make the reader understand about the topic. It enables the reader to get confused about the main object of the article. The object ne eds to be more focused and clear. It should give it more concentration on stakeholders (Dashnow et al. 2014). The concept of stakeholders and the corporate social responsibility need to interconnect with each other. The article needs to include more detailed information about the process of stakeholders appraising on CSR. Besides that, they need to create a relation about stakeholders and the CSR as they only focus on benefits of CSR. Moreover, it should consist of some examples of the organizations. The article focuses on the organizations as a whole, which makes tough for the reader to understand it (Jalalian and Danial 2012). Compare and contrast both the articles that you have chosen to focus upon in order to highlight the different aspect of the organization. The articles focus on the contribution of CSR in the organizations. The articles has the same concept which initiates the sustainability and ethical improvement for the organization. However both the approach is different. The article of part one gives focus on the sustainability and the ethical terns of the different organization (Forbes.com 2016). While, in the second phase it concentrates on the corporate Social Responsibilitys role and benefits for its stakeholders. Besides, the stakeholders interests from the organization. The article of part two gives more details on the understanding but it does not consist of some particular organizations. It gives focus on all the organizations in the national and international level as a whole. However the part one article segmented the organization with examples has clear understandings about its approach but lacks detail information about the same (Iiste.org 2016). Reference list: Dashnow, H., Lonsdale, A. and Bourne, P.E., 2014. Ten simple rules for writing a PLOS ten simple rules article. PLoS Comput Biol, 10(10), p.e1003858.Forbes.com. (2016). Forbes Welcome. [online] Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/susanmcpherson/2016/01/08/5-csr-trends-that-will-blossom-in-2016/2/#7c232fbb5bd8 [Accessed 26 Jun. 2016].Iiste.org. (2016). Business Advantages of Corporate Social Responsibility Practice: A Critical Review. [online] Available at: https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/NMMC/article/viewFile/8414/8513 [Accessed 26 Jun. 2016].Jalalian, M. and Danial, A.H., 2012. Writing for academic journals: A general approach. Electronic physician, 4(2), pp.474-476.Kulkarni, S., 2013. 3 Basic tips on writing a good research paper title.Editage Insights (17-10-2013).Sen, G.B., 2014. Clues for writing a good research paper. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology, 2(2), p.39.

The Name of the Rose; Movie vs Essay Essay Example

The Name of the Rose; Movie vs Essay Paper Differences from the movie to the book can make a huge difference in a arsons outlook toward It; if the plot has drastic changes then the movie is rarely better than the book. Set in 1327, The Name of the Rose by Umber Echo will grab your attention from the first sentence and keep you entertained throughout the novel. The movie, which Is Introduced as a palimpsest of Umber ECHO novel has many drawbacks from making It as spectacular as the novel Itself. The Name of the Rose has two main characters, William of Basketballs and Dads of Milk. Dads is the first character to be introduced, but it is Dads in the future calling the events of William and his six days spent at the Abbey. William and Dads are brought to the Abbey to participate in a debate with a papal legation over the poverty of Christ as well as the status of the Franciscan order. However, upon their arrival, Addled, a young illustrator of the manuscripts, had been murdered and they are asked to help investigate the crime. During prayer the next morning, another body is discovered; Venetians, a young translator of the manuscripts, was found in a vat of pigs blood. We will write a custom essay sample on The Name of the Rose; Movie vs Essay specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Name of the Rose; Movie vs Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Name of the Rose; Movie vs Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer William and Dads begin looking for a book that they believe both Addled and Venusians were reading. The only people allowed in the library are the librarian and his assistant, which makes the Investigation even harder. Bernard, the librarians assistant, goes missing on the third day. Continuing the Investigations, William deciphers a code that Venetians had left behind, which will help William and Dads get further into the library. On the fourth day, they found the Finis African, which is the room where they believe the book is hidden. The fifth day Severing, the herbalist of the Abbey, was found dead and the book that William had trusted him tit has been stolen. Malachite, the chief librarian of the Abbey, is blamed for the taking of the book. After Malachite died in prayer on the sixth day, it seemed as though William was going to solve the case, but the abbot then informed him that he did not want him investigating the crimes of the Abbey anymore. William and Dads find Jorge, a blind elderly monk who knows a great deal about books and the library, with the book In the Falls African and discovered the truth behind all of the murders. Jorge refused to let the book be read by anybody and ate all of the poisonous pages, knocked over a lamp and started the library on fire. When the library started on fire, there was little hope for the Abbey ever being as admired as it once had been (The Name AT ten Rose). When a book is created into a film, there are always details of the plot that are changed. The film The Name of the Rose, directed by Jean Jacques Unhand, has a similar plot as the novel but gives Off different effect. As said by David Wisteria, While the novel was a satisfying and complex mystery that inspired the intellect, the film is a satisfying and complex mystery that inspires indigestion (Wisteria). This statement makes clear the difference of movies and books; Books can give more in depth details about the characters, setting, and emotions while movies create a picture to see the details. I personally like reading books better than watching movies because of the detail the books give. In the book, Dads of Milk is a Benedictine novice whereas in the movie he is a Franciscan novice; the whole story can be altered when changes in the plot are made. With the novel being lengthy, it is hard to fit every single event into a movie without it being multiple hours long. One hinge that was cut out of the movie is a long dream that Dads had towards the end of the sixth day. Another thing that is obsolete from the movie is how the Abbot clearly assigns William to be the investigator of the murders that have been happening in the Abbey and the Abbot tells William that the difficult is forbidden at night. I think knowing that William is in charge of the murder case is key to understanding the plot, but if that is not shown in the movie it may be difficult for some viewers to understand what is happening until the movie progresses. To help reduce the Engel of the movie, the main characters discussions about the time period and heretics was drastically cut down; also dialogue concerning comedy and religion is nonexistent in the film. Little changes like these can change the major effect of a story and it can sometimes even change the whole story itself. The Abbot himself is a strange character, both in the film and the book. He never seems to know what is truly going on, and he seems to change sides of the murder cases throughout the story. In the book, the Abbot becomes the sixth victim by Jorge trapping him in a ethereal, ultimately suffocating him to death; in the film, the Abbot Just stops making appearances. There could be many reasons why the Abbot Just stops appearing in the film: money costs, the movie would have been too long to make him a victim also, or the actor himself had health problems. Another character that never even makes an appearance in the film is Benny of Pascal. Benny was also a suspect in the murders and even helped William and Dads in the investigation for a short period of time. As the library is burning, Benny is suspected to die from running in and having he floor of the library collapse. Jorge is another character who keeps things interesting. The history of the Abbey librarians, who traditionally become Abbots later on, is cut out of the film. By cutting out the history of the librarians and the history of how Jorge was chosen for this position, Gorges motivation for revenge is cut down drastically. Gorges speech that is given in the book about the apocalypse and the ruin of the Abbey because of its pursuit of knowledge is cut down to merely an exclamation in the film, due too panic of Malachites death. The most notable change room the novel to the movie was the ending. In the novel, Bernard Gut, a Judge in the Inquisition, does not die and he takes Remixing, the cellarer of the Abbey, Salvatore, member of a heretical cult, and a peasant girl, from the village below the monastery, with him and his escorts. Remixing is taken to Avignon, which is the seat AT ten pope, Tort Nils trial Detour en Is Turned. Ass tan Bernard Gull will burn the girl on the way and that Salvatore, who is forgiven, may or may not be burned as well. The film has Remixing and Salvatore being burned at the stakes by Bernard Gut. Bernard Gui is then killed by the peasants and is not able to burn the girl, who escapes during all the chaos of the library burning (The Name of the Rose). Not set out to please a vast crowd of book buyers, Umber Echo wrote The Name of the Rose to amuse him with a tale of church politics and murder. As Said by Peter Burke from History Today, The Name of the Rose is worth reading for the literal sense alone, as a well constructed thriller, though even here intellectuality makes its appearance in the form of references to Cowan Doyle. The book can also be read as n allegory, a book about structuralism (Burke, Peter). There are many different ways to look at the book, as pointed out by Burke. Not expecting his novel to be a best seller in Europe and the United States, Umber Echo was shocked when in 1983 he found out his book was going to be turned into a movie. Elaborate sets, dim lighting and misty landscapes, created by director Jean-Jacques Unhand, gives the movie a kind of atmosphere that had no single mood. Announced as a palimpsest in the opening credits, shows how Unhand used plot synopsis to create this film. As Vincent Canny of The New York Times says, As Brother William, the voice of reason in an age of superstition, Sean Concern does his best to find the films proper tone, which should have been provided by Mr.. Unhand and the four people who wrote the screenplay. Mr.. Concern doesnt have an easy time of it (Canny, Vincent). With this review, I think most people were shocked with the popularity of the book, thinking the film would have been much better. Other reviews have some similar and some different opinions of the film. For instance, Mac from Time Out New York says The monks themselves are marvelous, a gallery of grotesques straight out of Burgher, and if the film has faults, they are quibbles: the murder mystery is solved too soon, and rather too much plot is crammed into the available space. (Mac). I agree with what Mac has to say, I think that the novel is too lengthy with too many important details to be left, making this a recipe for a disaster when trying to create a film. I also agree with Mac when he credits the monks on being marvelous and a gallery of grotesques straight out of Burgher because the monks were very well depicted in he film. Sheila Benson from The Los Angels Times says, From the moment the credits announce that Jean-Jacques Naiads film is a palimpsest of Umber Echos novel, you know that youre in for a heavy cultural weather (Benson, Sheila). This clearly states that Benson agrees with Canny and Mac when they say, too much plot for too little time. From the beginning, Unhand had many challenges when he took on the responsibility of fitting a 500-page novel into a two-hour film. There was no question that there would be changes in the plot, with the characters, and minor detail changes. Even though the movie was a palimpsest of the novel, Unhand still made his point and created a decent film.

My Relationship with Time and Its Effect on Happiness

My Relationship with Time and Its Effect on Happiness The question about my relationship to time and happiness, I feel totally confused. On the one hand, I agree that those who wake up early have a possibility to complete more things; however, on the other hand, those people who likes to go to bed later and to sleep more in the morning they just cannot be happy waking up in the early morning.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on My Relationship with Time and Its Effect on Happiness specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Our lives consist of the present moments and chances that we should use. But, isn’t it the same if one gets up early, but goes to sleep also early and one sleeps in the morning but awake until the midnight or late? Both persons are able to accomplish the same range of things, being in a good mood and have a lot of energy. It is obvious that all people are different when it goes about the biological and diurnal rhythm. Therefore, I think that one can be happy , satisfied and full of energy only in case if one lives according to one’s rhythm. Eventually, I think that it is necessary to use time correctly, to sleep well and to work in the most productive hours. In the article â€Å"Be Happier: Wake Up Earlier† Rubin says, â€Å"if I want to feel happy, calm, energetic, and mentally sharp, I must get enough sleep† (Rubin, â€Å"Be Happier: Wake Up Earlier†). Obviously, such statement is absolutely correct. However, I disagree with author when he talks about the advantage to get up early. Rubin says that he gets up at 6 am would like to do it at 5 am. I can conclude that his job includes the early working hours; therefore he can back home early and sleep. Such schedule is absolutely unacceptable for those who have the night shifts or works after lessons. Moreover, students usually spend more time studying and working even in case if they have to go to university in the morning. And it is wrong to insist that such schedule makes them unhappy. It is just the circumstances that require the particular rhythm. Also, Rubin asserts that to think about time is â€Å"one of the great challenges of a happiness project† (â€Å"Be Happier: Wake Up Earlier†). For Rubin, time is a master who can dictate the regulations. As for me, time is a worker that should be used in the most appropriate, adequate and effective way. Obviously, Rubin is right saying that the structure of our day reflects our interests, physical characteristics, temp of life and a field of activity. He emphasizes an importance of changing of a shift in order to make a day different. Eventually he concludes that only that schedule is right which is good for a particular person. In this position, I totally agree with Rubin. Sometimes it can be helpful to change day-schedule and rhythm. However, it is important to make sure that such change is good for one’s health and ability to work or study. For me, it is always hard to get up early. Although I have to study starting from the morning to accomplish a lot of work, I cannot compel myself to get up earlier and immediately. After all, it is the best moment when I can lie in a bed and think about all good moments that a new day will provide. However, it is better to get up fast and to prepare myself to university.Advertising Looking for essay on rhetoric? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Hodgkinson say that from the early childhood parent starts a brainwashing process commanding children to get out from bed (2007, p. 2). On the one hand, such methods are helpful and teach children do not waste time. However, on the other hand, it can be bad for health if one needs to neglect one’s biological rhythm. Nevertheless, in case of pupils, parents do it right. Or how else they can convince their children do not be idle? Everyone should understand a real value of every second. Perhaps, s uch statement sounds pathosly, it is absolutely true. A successful person knows how to allocate one’s time and how to use it in the most effective way. Obviously, it is impossible to be happy staying in a bed and simply being idle. Form my personal experience, I know that it is absolutely possible to change the rhythm according to my needs and working schedule. Although it may be complicated at the beginning, however, the eventual result is worth to subject one’s body to be under such pressure. Hodgkinson discusses about the historical attitude of people to sleep and idleness. Concluding that naturally people always behave in the same way, being lazy and idle, he suggest a great method for those who can hardly wake up early (2007, p. 4). He says that one should prepare a cup of coffee and set the alarm half an hour before one has to get up. When alarm triggers, one drinks coffee and goes to sleep again. After half an hour one will be awake due to the work of caffeine. I think that everyone should take this method into account. Obviously, not all of us can plane daily schedule according to the biological rhythm. Therefore, it is necessary to train body and mind to work in the concrete time needed for the work or study. Looking at the human life time, I agree with all statements that our life is worth to use every second with mind. Happy person is not the one who stays in bed all day long without any reason. Many times I heard how people complain about a lack of time. The cause of such situation is an idleness and unwillingness to get out from bed fast. However, it is also highly important to take into consideration that every person has one’s own biological rhythm that implies the most effective working hours. In case if one needs to work early or vice verse at night hours, it is possible to use some methods in order to train one’s body and mind. Evidentially, happiness is a deep essence that cannot be conditional by time only. Howev er, the discussion about happiness always involves the reflections about time. Every century dictates its rules and the distinctive feature of our century is a high speed of life. This situation should motivate everyone who wants to achieve the results and develop one’s life. Therefore, if one wants to be in time, it is necessary to use this time accordingly. Obviously, the correct and appropriate use of time is an important issue that can help everyone to be in a good mood, full of energy and ready to work hard in order to achieve the outstanding results, to be successful and respected person.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on My Relationship with Time and Its Effect on Happiness specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Reference List Hodgkinson, T. (2007). How to be Idle: A Loafer’s Manifesto. US: HarperCollins. Rubin, G. (n.d.). Be Happier: Wake Up Earlier. Retrieved from https://psychcentral.com/

Grandfather Clauses and Their Impact on Voting Rights

Grandfather Clauses and Their Impact on Voting Rights Grandfather clauses were statutes that seven Southern states implemented in the 1890s and early 1900s to prevent African Americans from voting. The statutes allowed any person who had been granted the right to vote before 1867 to continue voting without needing to take literacy tests, own property, or pay poll taxes. The name â€Å"grandfather clause† comes from the fact that the statute also applied to the descendants of anyone who had been granted the right to vote before 1867. Since most African Americans were enslaved prior to the 1860s and did not have the right to vote, grandfather clauses prevented them from voting even after they had won their freedom from slavery. How the Grandfather Clause Disenfranchised Voters The 15th Amendment of the Constitution was ratified on February 3, 1870. This amendment stated that the â€Å"right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.† In theory, this amendment gave African Americans the right to vote. However, black Americans had the right to vote in theory only. The Grandfather clause stripped them of their right to vote by requiring them to pay taxes, take literacy tests or constitutional quizzes, and overcome other barriers simply to cast a ballot. White Americans, on the other hand, could vote get around these requirements if they or their relatives had already had the right to vote prior to 1867- in other words, they were grandfathered in by the clause. Southern states such as Louisiana, the first to institute the statutes, enacted grandfather clauses even though they knew these statutes violated the U.S. Constitution, so they put a time limit on them in hopes that they could register white voters and disenfranchise black voters before the courts overturned the laws. Lawsuits can take years, and Southern lawmakers knew that most African Americans could not afford to file lawsuits related to grandfather clauses. Grandfather clauses weren’t just about racism. They were also about limiting the political power of African Americans, most of whom were loyal Republicans because of Abraham Lincoln. Most Southerners at the time were Democrats, later known as Dixiecrats, who had opposed Lincoln and the abolition of slavery. But grandfather clauses weren’t limited to Southern states and didn’t just target Black Americans. Northeast states like Massachusetts and Connecticut required voters to take literacy tests because they wanted to keep immigrants in the region from voting, since these newcomers tended to back Democrats during a time when the Northeast leaned Republican. Some of the South’s grandfather clauses may have even been based on a Massachusetts statute. The Supreme Court Weighs In: Guinn v. United States Thanks to the NAACP, the civil rights group established in 1909, Oklahomas grandfather clause faced a challenge in court. The organization urged a lawyer to fight the state’s grandfather clause, implemented in 1910. Oklahoma’s grandfather clause stated the following: â€Å"No person shall be registered as an elector of this state or be allowed to vote in any election held herein, unless he be able to read and write any section of the Constitution of the state of Oklahoma; but no person who was, on January 1, 1866, or any time prior thereto, entitled to vote under any form of government, or who at that time resided in some foreign nation, and no lineal descendant of such person, shall be denied the right to register and vote because of his inability to so read and write sections of such Constitution.† The clause gave white voters an unfair advantage, since the grandfathers of black voters had been enslaved prior to 1866 and were, thus, barred from voting. Moreover, enslaved African Americans were typically forbidden to read, and illiteracy remained a problem (both in the white and black communities) well after slavery was abolished. The U.S. Supreme Court decided unanimously in the 1915 case Guinn v. United States that grandfather clauses in Oklahoma and Maryland violated the constitutional rights of African Americans. That’s because the 15th Amendment declared that U.S. citizens should have equal voting rights. The Supreme Court’s ruling meant that grandfather clauses in states such as Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and Virginia were also overturned. Despite the high court’s finding that grandfather clauses were unconstitutional, Oklahoma and other states continued to pass laws that made it impossible for African Americans to vote. The Oklahoma Legislature, for example, responded to the Supreme Court ruling by passing a new law that automatically registered the voters who’d been on the rolls when the grandfather clause was in effect. Anyone else, on the other hand, had only between April 30 and May 11, 1916, to sign up to vote or they would lose their voting rights forever. That Oklahoma law remained in effect until 1939 when the Supreme Court overturned it in Lane v. Wilson, finding that it infringed on the rights of voters outlined in the Constitution. Still, black voters throughout the South faced huge barriers when they tried to vote. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 Even if African Americans managed to pass a literacy test, pay a poll tax, or complete other hurdles, they could be punished for voting in other ways. After slavery, large numbers of blacks in the South worked for white farm owners as tenant farmers or sharecroppers in exchange for a small cut of the profits from the crops grown. They also tended to live on the land they farmed, so voting as a sharecropper could mean not only losing one’s job but also being forced out of one’s home if the landowner opposed black suffrage. In addition to potentially losing their employment and housing if they voted, African Americans who engaged in this civic duty could find themselves targets of white supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan. These groups terrorized black communities with night rides during which they would burn crosses on lawns, set homes alight, or force their way into black households to intimidate, brutalize, or lynch their targets. But courageous blacks exercised their right to vote, even if meant losing everything, including their lives. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 eliminated many of the barriers that black voters in the South encountered, such as poll taxes and literacy tests. The act also led to the federal government overseeing voter registration. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is credited with finally making the 15th Amendment a reality. Sources â€Å"Along the Color Line: Political,†Ã‚  The Crisis, volume 1, n. 1, November 11, 1910.Brenc, Willie. The Grandfather Clause (1898-1915). BlackPast.org. Greenblatt, Alan. â€Å"The Racial History Of The ‘Grandfather Clause.’† NPR 22 October, 2013.Keyssar, Alexander. The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States. Basic Books, 2009. United States; Killian, Johnny H.; Costello, George; Thomas, Kenneth R. The Constitution of the United States of America:  Analysis and Interpretation : Analysis of Cases Decided by the Supreme Court of the United States to June 28, 2002. Government Printing Office, 2004.

Entry Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Entry Strategy - Essay Example The economic and political factors are inter-related and it becomes difficult to identify only the economic or only the political factors separately (Altinay, 2005). The micro-environment is the internal environment which comprises of the corporate goals and objectives, the corporate strengths and weaknesses and the service factors. In addition to these, the location is equally important (Ekeledo & Sivakumar, 1998). Zhao and Decker (2004) contend that size of the firm, the technology transfer if required, the cultural distance, the market size, risks and uncertainties, sectoral barriers, and the international experience also influence the entry strategy. Taking these factors into account, the market entry strategy for ABC in India and Ireland would be recommended.   While market entry is generally through exports, licensing, joint venture or opening of wholly owned subsidiaries, in the hospitality sector the mode of entry is different. In this sector direct ownership or any form of equity partnership is not preferred in countries with high economic or political risks, and of the level of economic development is low (Altinay, 2005). If the risks are high entry modes with low resource commitment is preferred. Franchising and management contracts are the most preferred modes of entry in the hotel sector in international expansion. In both these formats capital-intensive assets and knowledge-based assets can be separated.  Service firms may enter foreign markets using a variety of modes but control is the most vital factor.

St. Catherine of Sienna Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

St. Catherine of Sienna - Essay Example Catherine was the youngest of the 25 children of Giacomo and Lapa. While Catherine was growing up, she suddenly had a vision while she was walking home with her brother from a visit to the home of her married sister. Catherine saw in the sky a vision of Jesus Christ seated with the apostles Peter, Paul ,and John. After having experienced this vision, Catherine decided to devout her life to prayer and solitude. Her father, Giacomo, took notice of the child’s love for prayer and gave her a special room in their house where she could spend time for meditation and prayer. By the time that she was twelve, her mother kept reminding her to pay attention to her appearance so that she would be able to attract the right man to be her husband. At first, Catherine obeyed but declared later on that she would not marry. In spite of her family’s attempts to convince Catherine to change her mind, her father finally gave up and allowed his child to continue devoting herself to prayer, m editation and fasting. At the age of 18, Catherine was allowed to wear the black habit of a Dominican tertiary. She did not speak to many people except to her confessor and the only place she visited was the nearby church of St. Dominic. It was only after her last vision of Christ that Catherine went out of her room and began to mingle with the people around her. As a Dominican tertiary, she helped the sick and started to attract a good number of followers.

National campaigns Essay Example for Free

National campaigns Essay Walker Crisps control the largest part of the crisps market in the United Kingdom, but lost significant market share three years ago when consumers began turning to other forms of snack. Furthermore, as the populace is made increasingly aware of the poor nutrition of some snack foods, the high salt content, and high fat content, they appear to be turning away from brands perceived as less healthy. Unfortunately, despite a revamping of products in 2006, most crisps products are viewed as less healthy and nutritious than alternatives such as cereal bars. National campaigns designed to improve the quality of school lunches were effective at turning parents away from crisps as a lunchbox staple and adult health campaign have lead people to consider other snack options including fruits, nuts, yogurt and cereal bars. In addition, there is some indication that a declining birth rate has also negatively impacted demand for crisps as they tend to be most popular among the males in their teens and early twenties. Older and more affluent snackers choose other options including specialty, private label crisps, corn-based snacks and gourmet crisps with exotic flavors. It also seems clear from evidenced reported by Mintel analysis of the snack food market that there are some areas in which crisps cannot compete, as some consumers, particularly women seem attached to chocolate and sweet biscuits as a preferred indulgent snack. And, there is a marketing nightmare brewing. While crisps must shed their image as fatty, over-salted snacks with no nutritional value if they are to maintain their market share in a health-conscious environment, evidence suggests that men in particular do not want to eat something labeled as â€Å"diet† or â€Å"healthy†. The key appears to be a serious media campaign to change the way people think about crisps. Evidence suggestions that the three trends most likely to impact the crisps market are: a desire to purchase healthier snacks, a desire for classier snacks, and a desire to eliminate snacking in general. The Move toward Healthier Snacks The evidence is clear that the trend in snacking is to find healthier alternatives. Walker crisps was able to regain some of its lost market share in 2006 with the introduction and promotion of healthier, â€Å"baked† varieties, but still faces an uphill battle. In a recent poll, nearly half of the consumers questioned said they would be willing to spend more to be able to buy foods that were free from chemical additives (Mintel, 2007). Since many so-called â€Å"diet† foods are laden with chemicals ranging from preservatives to artificial sweeteners, this may be a market niche that Walkers could exploit with an all-natural crisp. However, it will take a serious marketing campaign to educate consumers about the â€Å"dangers’ hidden in other snack foods. Mintel’s analysis of Walkers marketing expenditures over the last three years has indicated that they have begun to see the value of print advertising that explains the benefits of their newer, â€Å"healthier† product lines. However, it seems likely that Walkers will have to consider a new multimedia advertising campaign that redirects the way people think about crisps. A strict marketing campaign that shows crisp consumption as part of a healthy diet could also help the company retain market share. Currently, consumers are increasingly turning to other snack options in the belief that they are healthier than crisps. It might be advantageous to do a head to head comparison between crisps and several other snacks demonstrating the relative fat content, calories and other nutritional information. For example, the Mintel study showed that 23 percent of consumers snack on cereal bars, often in the belief that they are a healthy sack. However, reading a product label makes it clear that the average cereal bar has as many calories and carbohydrates as a bag of baked crisps. Walkers also needs to continue with current advertising campaigns which explain the change in oils used to create the crisps and the reduction in salt. All of these combined attacks on accepted nutritional ideas can help to recreate crisps in the minds of the consumer. Furthermore, Mintel analysis shows that consumers are less likely to buy branded products or healthy products when buying for use in entertaining. As part of their overall health campaign, Walkers might want to consider an advertising campaign similar to the ones used by American beer companies. â€Å"Friends don’t let friends drink bad beer† could become something along the lines of â€Å"Show your friends you have great taste, buy walker crisps. † Though the concept is a bit loose, it could be refined and would likely results in increased sales for Walkers. The Move to Classier Snacks Another interesting trend within snack food is the move toward hand-cooked or gourmet crisps. These premium brands tend to be smaller manufacturers instead of multinational corporations like Walkers, which is a division of PepsiCo. These brands are gaining in popularity among more affluent, educated consumers. They have shown a preference for exotic flavors like â€Å"Thai sweet chili† and sea salt and malt vinegar instead of the standard crisps (Mintel, 2007). To that end, it is in the best interest of Walkers to continue to expand their line of premium crisps and to develop new flavors that are likely to appeal to consumers. Within this market, it is also important to appeal to the health conscious consumer, so any effort that can be made to create these new flavors using infused oils and natural spices instead of something cooked up with chemicals is a plus (Mintel, 2007). These consumers are more educated and therefore more likely to be well-informed about the products that they are putting into their bodies. These consumers are in many ways the perfect target for an educational advertising campaign which asks why they are depriving themselves of the textures and flavors they love just so that they can eat a cereal bar that tastes like cardboard. This is also a good market to explore because this demographic is less concerned about the price and more concerned about giving themselves a special treat. Often, hey view everything they eat, drink and wear as a form of status symbol and Walkers would do well to establish their premiums brands within this niche. An advertising campaign that reminds consumers that doing something nice for themselves should also taste good would play well to this demographic. The Move Away from Snacking As part of a health-consciousness campaign, citizens of the United Kingdom are being taught that snacking between meals is leading to the Britain’s obesity problem and should be cut out (Mintel, 2007). According to the Mintel poll, fewer people every year admit to eating between meals. While this may be a factor of people not admitting to themselves what their true behavior patterns are, it can mean that they are not planning ahead for snacking and not purchasing traditional snack foods like crisps. One of the best ways to deal with this would be another form of reeducation for the populace. Though dietary requirements are in an ever-changing state of flux as science learns more and more about how the body works, many diets argue that five or six small meals a day maintain blood sugar levels better than the traditional three meals a day. So, even if the addition is simply mid-morning and afternoon tea, Walkers and other snack providers need to change the way the United Kingdom thinks about snacks. Again, the goal is not to have crisps replace full meals like breakfast, but crisps with tea might be a marketing ploy that Walkers could successfully market especially in terms of their premium, exotic brands. Acknowledging that they are competing with scones and sweet biscuits and everything else for every moment the consumer chooses a snack is imperative to Walkers efforts to maintain their market share. Conclusions The simple truth is that snack foods are facing an increased amount of competition every day with more and more companies looking for alternatives to the standard potato crisp. Therefore, companies which rely on crisps as a major segment of their brand identity must find new ways to market and appeal to consumers. Since we have established that current buying behavior seems to be based on perceived nutritional value, perceived class and the perception that snacking makes you fat, an aggressive marketing campaign designed to challenge these notions and change them is necessary. Walks must change the perception of crisps as an unhealthy waste of calories and a blase snack. They must jazz it up and create a desire for people to incorporate crisps into their daily diet. Otherwise, they will continue to watch their market share slip away. WORKS CITED â€Å"Crisps and Snacks†, Mintel Reports, May, 2007.

Essay --

Animal testing is a very controversial topic, especially among animal rights activists. Unsually, animal testing is used to test pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and many other products that humans use in their everyday life. Scientists use animals in medical research more as a matter of tradition, as opposed to the fact that testing on animals has proved to fail time after time again. Animal testing has proved to be less accurate and unsuccessful in comparison to other means of testing and experimentation. There is a growing awareness to the limitations of animal research and its inability to be a reliable source of predictions about human health. Reasons on why and how animal research is wrong, and unpredictable are endless, animal studies do not predict human outcome, nine out of ten drugs that appear to be promising in animal research later goes on to fail in human trials, as well animal studies are flawed by design and lacks regulation. Many scientists have come to the conclusion t hat animal testing is very outdated, and should be starting to consider modern ways of testing. They believe that our generation should be looking to the future and creating computer programs, this has many benefits; such as not having to wait as long for a result, and is much more cost effective. Animal studies do not predict human outcome for many reasons. There are obvious and subtle differences between humans and animals, whether it is appearance, the way the body operates, anatomy, and even mental differences. The two species are on completely different end of the spectrum in comparison to how the body works. Taking a healthy animal, artificially inseminating an illness that most animals would never normally get, keeping it in an unnatural and st... ...nimal testing. There are laws which give a simple guide line, but they are so general and broad that they can easily be worked around. Any experiment performed on rodents, reptiles, birds, or fish are not required by law to be reported, this means that it is even more likely for these experiments to involve unnecessary cruelty. Many of the animals used for lab testing are the dogs and cats that many of us keep as pets, and the same ones who eventually love us unconditionally, even sometimes more than they love their selves. Animal testing should be banned for no other reason than the fact that few of us would never volunteer our cats, dogs, or any other pet to a life as a lab subject . It has been proved that there are different more effective ways of testing whether or not a product can be safely used for the use of human consumption without using animals.

Global Crossing Management

Global Crossing Management 1 Global Crossing Management Mary Adams MGT/330 April 6, 2010 Global Crossing Management 2 Global Crossing Management Global Crossing was founded in 1997 by Gary Winnick. They reported $3. 8 billion in revenue and $1. 9 billion in losses in 2000. Global Crossing is a leading global IP solutions provider. Global Crossing has developed the world’s first integrated global IP-based network, according to the About Global Crossing article (2010). The management of Global Crossing began the company by using all four functions of management. The planning function of management was the beginning of turning an idea into a success. According to University of Phoenix Week Two reading Planning and Strategic Management (2010), â€Å"Planning is the conscious, systematic process of making decisions about goals and activities that an individual, group, work unit, or organization will pursue in the future. † There are six steps in the planning process that Global Crossing had to use in order to plan for the company’s future. The first step in the planning process is a situational analysis. A ituation analysis is when past events are studied, current conditions are examined, and future trends are forecasted. The second step in the planning process is developing alternative goals and plans. Goals should be specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound. The third step in the planning process is evaluating goals and plans. Management should evaluate the effects of Global Crossing Management 3 the goals and plans, prioritize goals, and consider implications. The fourth step in the planning process is selecting the goals and plans that are the most appropriate. This will lead to a written set of goals and plans. The fifth step in the planning process is implementing the plans. Implementing the plan requires all managers and employees to understand the plan and to be motivated to implement the plan. The sixth step in the planning process is monitoring and controlling. Monitoring and controlling is necessary in determining if the plan is successful. According to About Global Crossing (2010), some of the Global Crossing management’s plans were to provide telecommunications, deliver services globally, and employ a team of dedicated rofessionals. Many different factors influence Global Crossing’s strategic, tactical, operational, and contingency planning. Some of those factors are Global Crossing’s management’s strengths and weaknesses. A strong management can work well together to develop strategic, tactical, operational, and contingency plans. However, if the management team is weak, the strategic, tactical, operati onal, and contingency plans may also be weak. The economy is another factor that can influence Global Crossing’s strategic, tactical, operational, and contingency planning. The plans may need to be different when the economy is good than when the economy is bad. Global Crossing Management 4 Scandals within the company is a factor that can influence strategic, tactical, operational, and contingency planning at Global Crossing. Scandals can affect trust between employees and managers as well as affect the trust that the consumers have in the company. Global Crossing has had some scandals that have influenced management planning. These scandals have brought about legal issues, ethic issues, and corporate social responsibility ssues for Global Crossing and the future of Global Crossing. Ackman (2002) stated that Global Crossing faced issues in 2002 when the company went bankrupt. Ackman (2002) also stated that Global Crossing and Gary Winnick were charged with â€Å"dishonest accounting, fraudulent swapping of assets and liabilities, and the enrichment of top executives† even though other employees lost millions. Greed seemed to be the downfall of Gl obal Crossing. Global Crossing faced ethics issues when it was discovered that Gary Winnick and former CEO, Leo Hindery, Jr. ere involved with insider trading. Another ethics issue with Global Crossing was capacity swapping. The new management team at Global Crossing see ethics as an important part of the company and the planning process. Ethics influence management planning at Global Crossing because it plays an important part in the planning process. When planning, Global Crossing’s management planned a code of ethics and business Global Crossing Management 5 conduct plan. According to Code of Ethics and Business Conduct (n. d. ), management at Global Crossing make sure that all employees review and agree with the Code of Ethics. If employees do not comply with the Code of Ethics, they will be subject to discipline and could even be terminated. At the same time that Global Crossing was facing ethic issues within the company, they were also facing legal issues. Insider trading and capacity swapping were both illegal. Gary Winnick, Leo Hindery, Jr. , and many others faced legal charges for their illegal activities. The new management team planned the Code of Ethics and Business Conduct plan to make sure the ompany does not get involved with any illegal activities again. Corporate social responsibility is an important part of Global Crossing and the management planning process. John Legere, CEO of Global Crossing, and management and employees of Global Crossing have developed many different programs that show corporate social responsibility in their planning. It is stated in Corporate Social Responsibility (2009) that Global Caring i s a worldwide program that developed an Employee Community Day. Each employee is granted one extra day off to pursue a charitable contribution to their community. MATHNext is an education program that Global Crossing has helped by providing technology, Global Crossing Management 6 donating laptop computers, and providing videoconferencing and web-based seminars. Global Crossing also participates in Going Green. Global Crossing is a company that has faced a downfall and with a new management team, has rebuilt itself. Many different factors can influence management planning. Issues such as legal issues, ethics, and corporate social responsibility can influence management planning. These factors and issues can make a company a failure with a poor management team. The same factors and issues can also make a company a success with a strong management team. Global Crossing has been turned from a failure to a success with a strong management team and proper planning. Global Crossing Management 7 References About Global Crossing. (2010). Global Crossing. Retrieved April 25, 2010, from http://www. globalcrossing. com/company/company_landing. aspx Ackman, D. (2002). House committees to investigate Global Crossing. Forbes. com. Retrieved April 25, 2010, from http://www. forbes. com/2002/03/13/0313topnews. html Code of Ethics and Business Conduct. (n. d. ). Global Crossing. Retrieved April 26, 2010, from http://www. globalcrossing. com/docs/Ethics/GlobalCrossingCodeofConductPolicy_eng. pdf Corporate Social Responsibility. (2009). Global Crossing. Retrieved April 26, 2010, from http://www. globalcrossing. com/company/company_global_caring. aspx University of Phoenix. (2010). Planning and Strategic Management. Retrieved April 22, 2010, from University of Phoenix, Week Two reading, aXcess, MGT330-Management: Theory, Practice and Application Course Web site.

Freund

Creating Deviance Rules: A Macroscopic Model Author(s): Ronald J. Troyer and Gerald E. Markle Source: The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Spring, 1982), pp. 157-169 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Midwest Sociological Society Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/4106327 Accessed: 16/11/2009 09:18 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www. jstor. org/action/showPublisher? publisherCode=black. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email  protected] org. Blackwell Publishing and Midwest Sociological Society are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Sociological Quarterly. http://www. jstor. org The SociologicalQuarterly (Spring1982):157-169 23 Deviance Rules: Creating A Macroscopic Model* RonaldJ. Troyer,Drake University GeraldE. Markle,Western MichiganUniversity In this paperwe proposea macrolevel the modelfor analyzing creationof deviance rules. We begin by placingthe phenomenon withinthe contextof the social factist and social definitionist the sociological traditions, identifying insightsand difficulties the socialproblems We rule creation. sugliterature for deviance presents explaining difficulties be resolvedby lacingthe processwithina can gest that the theoretical The consequent dialecticalmodel of deviance framework. sociologyof knowledge is that society is composedof a numberof designation based on the assumption in of definitions deviance generalinterests varying degreesof conflictwithprevailing outcomes previous of This balanceor accommodation contests. becomes representing vulnerable with the introduction increasein strainwhich is a potentialresource or for inte rest a The groupsdesiring new definition. utcomeof the ensuingconflictis seen as dependent the abilityof the combatants employresources the battle. in on to We concludeby identifying advantages model has for studying deviance the the the rulecreation process. of This is how I treat theory: it is somethingto guide our understanding the social world; it helps us throughthe labyrinthof the buzzingconfusion of conflictingideologies, and, most of all, theory liberatesus from dead facts and worn-out myths. Davis 1980:xv) But since those sociologistswho espouse a strong and explicit determinism,and those who practice the techniquesof â€Å"verstehen,† â€Å"empathy,†and â€Å"takingthe actor'spoint of view,† differ upon so very many issues, technical and otherwise, the present suggestions are more likely to be treated as a pollution of the boundarybetween schools of thought than as a pathway to agreement. (Barnes, 1974:83-84) For decades the sociology of deviance focus ed on rule violation. This approach produced works on rule violators, described which rules were violated and how they were violated, and, arguably, why they were violated. Largely neglected in this work was the process by which rules were created; that is, the process by which deviant categories and designations were constructed. Recently scholars have begun to focus attention on this issue, resulting in various empirical case studies or rationales for the import of the collective definition process (Nuehring and Markle, 1974; Conrad, 1975; Pfohl, 1977; Spector and Kitsuse, 1977; Levine, 1978; Schneider, 1978; Markle and Troyer, 1979; Conrad and Schneider, 1980. As with many deviance studies, these efforts have not produced an explicit framework relating rule creation to the broader theoretical conceptions of social processes and the structural order. As a remedy, ? 1982 by The Sociological Quarterly. All rights reserved. 0038-0253/82/1300-0157$00. 75 *The authors thank Roland Chilton, Ronald Kramer, Frances McCrea, Joseph W. Schneider, Malcolm Spector, and Mayer Zald for their helpful comments. Ronald J. Troyer's address is Department of Sociology, Dr ake University, Des Moines, Iowa 50311. 158 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY Collins has called for a radicaldeparture deviancestudies,statfrom traditional ing that â€Å"thenext step clearlymustbe to abolishthe field of devianceentirely,to and link its materialswith what is knownof generalexplanations stratification of politics† (1975:17). And Davis (1980:5) has observedthat the time has come â€Å"for the sociology of deviance to move into mainstreamtheory–based sociology. † What theoreticalform ought these investigations take? The developments in sociologicaltheoryin the past few decadeshave been focusedaroundtwo dominant perspectives. The nature of these approachescan best be graspedby referringto Ritzer's (1975) distinctionbetween the social factist and social definitionist paradigms. The social factist is primarilyconcernedwith the cause of social phenomena; thus the questionasked is a why question. By contrast,since the social definitionist more concernedwith process,the researchquestionis a is how question. In studyingdeviance,for example,the social factistshave focused on behaviordescribing extent and natureasking†Whydo thesepeople do it? † its focusedon the process On the otherhand, the social definitionists have primarily Howhavethesepersons as asking by whichpeoplecometo be defined deviant the label? † acquired deviant have and Webelieve the theoretical of that efforts thefactists thedefinitionists been useful. Such work, though clearly the creationand social constructionof of scholars,is necessaryif the study of rule creationis to lead to generalizations wider applicability. Towardthat e nd, we reviewsome relevantliterature, develop creation a sociologyof knowledgeframework, then presenta macrodeviance and model which attemptsto bridge the gap between the factist and definitionist erspectives. Literature between PerhapsArmandMauss has best capturedthe essence of the difference the two majortraditionalapproachesto social problemstheory. The essence of the scholarlydisagreement, noted, came down to one grouparguingthat â€Å"sohe cial problems are ‘objective'realities which generate collective behavior and political action†versus the view that â€Å"socialproblemsare essentiallygenerated by collectivebehaviorand politicalprocesses†(1977:602, emphasisin original). The former closely approximatesthe social factist approach,while the latter the represents social definitionist position. Social factist scholarshave tended to explain social problemsas the product of some environmentally condition. This tradition, disharmonious usuallytermed the strain explanation,has often focused on economic conditions (Oberschall, between differentgoals, differentvalues, 1973) but also includes discrepancies values and norms, knowledgeand actions, technologyand values, and so forth (Smelser, 1962: chap. 3). Smelser,for example,indicatesthat â€Å"norm-oriented movements†(definedas attemptsto restore,protect,modify,or createnormsin the name of a generalizedbelief,† 1962:270) often springfrom the following kindsof strain: Sometimes the appearanceof new knowledge initiates a movement to apply this knowledge in order to eradicate a condition previously taken for granted. (1962: 287) CreatingDeviance Rules 159 can betweennormative and standards actualsocialconditions proAny disharmony videthe basisfor a movement whoseobjective is to modifynorms. 1962:289) it Davis (1975) used a strainmodel to explain changesin the collectivedefinition of deviance. Whileseeingdeviancedefinitions productsof powerstruggles as between groups with new rules representing values of those groups able to the win state endorsement their values, Davis suggeststhat â€Å"the diffusionof new of knowledgeis a majorcause of collective searchesfor new normsin the modern world†(1975:53). Although strain h as been a populartheoreticalapproachfor studyingsome social problems(e. g. race riots), few empiricalstudiesof deviancedesignation have followed from this tradition. PerhapsChamblisscame close in the study of the creation of new rules against vagrancy. In his words, â€Å"The vagrancy statutes emerged as a result of changes in other parts of the social structure† (1964:69). Specifically,the strain was the breakdownof the serf system; vagrancy laws were the responseof the rulingclass to protect their interestsand bring the system back to harmony. Zurcheret al. (1977) have also pointed to the crucial role of strainin the emergenceof antipornography crusades. In the communities amongstatus studied,they found that as a resultof inconsistencies variables,the traditionalmiddle class was experiencingthreatsto its life-style. were attemptsto the Consequently, effortsto gain new rulesagainstpornography bolster the legitimacyof their life-style. In other words, in the strain tradition of new definitionsof devianceare seen as responsesto the introduction various kindsof socialchangein society. Insteadof focusingon the causes of social problems,such as strain(objective traditionstressthat collective acconditions), scholarsin the social definitionist tions emergefrominteraction, processes. As Blumerstated: especiallyinterpretive â€Å"social problemslie in and are productsof a process of collective definition† (1971:301). Spector and Kitsuse (1977) pursuedthis theme with their argument that scholarsmust focus on the claims-making the process to understand emergenceof a social problemor definitionof deviance. This processtraditionhas spawneda varietyof empiricalstudies,often focusdefinitionsof deviance. The ing on the creationof criminaland health-related best known of these studies is Becker's (1963) analysisof the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937. Arguingthat there was no majorincreasein the actualuse of the drug, which would be the focus of a strain explanation,Becker attributesthe new rule to the activitiesof a â€Å"moralentrepreneur. † (For other interpretations, see Dickson, 1968; Galliherand Walker, 1977, 1978. ) Other studies have argued that juvenile courts were not created as a responseto increasesin delinquency,as the strainmodel would predict,but ratheras part of a moralcrusade of (Platt, 1969) or as the productof organizational conflictbetweensupporters the police and probationdepartments (Hagan and Leon, 1977). In two studies of sex offensedefinitions,Rose (1977) and Roby (1969) also emphasizeprocessualexplanations. Roby examinedchanges in the New York State penal law on prostitution and found that the relative power of numerous interest groups and individuals determined the final version of the act. Similarly, Rose related the rise of the â€Å"rape problem† to the ideology and organizations generated by the women's liberation movement. 160 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY of The status politics interpretation the temperancemovementby Gusfield in (1963, 1967) representsanotherone of the majorprocessualapproaches the literature. Basically,Gusfieldsuggeststhat the attemptsto have a behaviordesignated as deviantare often symbolicbattles†betweenopposedsystemsof moralities, culturesand stylesof life† (1963:173). In otherwords,it is not the behavior per se or social conditionswhich cause the attemptto label the behavioras deviant. Instead the designationof deviance must be seen as a productof status of for conflict,the competition the officialassignment honorand prestigethrough of legitimation groupnorms. The creationof new health-related of designations deviancehas been reviewed Conrad and Schneider(1980). These authorshave set forth a â€Å"sequential by of model† and â€Å"grounded on generalizations† the medicalization deviance. Following Spectorand Kitsuse,they emphasizethe import,and not the accuracy,of medicalclaims-making, view claims as strategicdevices, and view medicalization which reflectpolitics and demedicalization devianceas â€Å"cyclicalphenomena† of of the day. In the most recent processualanalysis,Schursuggeststhat deviancemust be seen as a politicalphenomenon. Arguingthat there are at least two sides in any stigmacontest, Schursuggeststhat what is really at stake in deviancedefinitions is the power of the respectivegroups. Since â€Å"power,of any sort, is more like a processthan an object† (1980:8), â€Å"deviancedefiningis not a static event but a continuousand changingprocess†(1980:66). In summary,the literaturereviewed above suggests two models for understandingthe collectivedefinitionof deviance. The process approacharguesthat collectivedefinitionsare the productof interestgroupdynamics. By contrastthe are is for, strainexplanation that societaldisjunctions responsible or at least play a majorrole in, the emergence new definitions. of BeyondDichotomousModels During the past decade, a numberof scholarshave attemptedto move beyond the raditionalstrainor processmodels. For example,Mauss (1975; Maussand of Wolfe, 1977) arguesthat new social problemsor new definitions devianceare best understoodas productsof social movementsled by interestgroups. In this view, social arrangements permit collective behaviorwhich usually focuses on structural strainsbroughtaboutby social change. Thoughmanys trainsare present in society, problem definitionis the product of interest groups organizing social movementswhich push for acceptanceof their definitionof reality. Resource mobilizationtheory is another attemptto move beyond the strain and process models. This framework begins with the assumptionthat society is composedof competinggroups (economic, status, racial,etc. ). Strainis always present,since thereis conflictamonggroupsover whichvalues,norms,economic and arrangements, so forth are to prevailin the society. Group conflictand the of social movementsare analyzedin terms of the abilityof the colemergence lectivities to create and mobilize resources (Oberschall, 1973). A dynamic element is introduced into the analysis: authorities as well as challengers possess resources; deployment by one side requires some kind of response (mobilization of additional resources) from the other side, lest the cause be defaulted. CreatingDeviance Rules 161 Marxistapproaches have also triedto move beyondstrainand processmodels. of Initially Marxist/conflict interpretations new rules defining deviance suggested that they were â€Å"firstand foremosta reflectionof the interestsof the governingclass† (Chambliss,1974:37). In this view â€Å"thestate and legal systemare seen as instruments which can be manipulated,almost at will, by the capitalist class† (Beirne, 1979:379), an approachillustratedby Platt's (1974) reinterpretation of the establishmentof the juvenile court as a conscious effort by SomeMarxcapitaliststo preserveexistingpoliticaland economicarrangements. ists have assigneda more ambiguous role to the state (Block, 1978), suggesting that it exercises a â€Å"relativeautonomy†in its relationship the capitalistclass to the enactmentof legislationis not alwaysin (Beirne, 1979:379). Consequently, the objectiveinterestsof the capitalistclass, â€Å"but each case must be examined from and empirically on its own merits†(Beirne, 1979:380). Whatis important, this position,is that all of this occurswithinthe boundaries providedby the prevailing structuralrelations. Lauderdaleand Inveraritycriticizedthe early conflict approachesfor inadequately examiningthe politicalprocessunderlyingthe creationof deviance. Arguingthat â€Å"devianceis socially definedand as such is and changedthroughpoliticalprocesses†(1980a:36), they created,maintained, ask underwhat conditionsa form of actioncomes to be definedas deviant(Lauderdale, 1980:v). Noting previousstudiesare characterized a â€Å"preoccupation by with subjectiveinterestsand lack of attentionto measuringobjectiveinterests† (1980b:229), they call for attentionto objectiveconditionsunderlyingthe deviance definitionprocess. These efforts are advancesover analyses which attributenew definitionsof devianceto social psychological processesor to the activitiesof individuals(moral entrepreneurs). Here, at least, an effortis made to locate the deviancewithin the larger social context. However, several issues remainunresolved. First, although recent effortshave attemptedto find a role for objectiveconditions,the remainsunclear. At role of strainin the generation new deviancedesignations of one group of scholars,the social definitionists, suggestobjectivecondipresent tions are largely irrelevant,while others (especially Lauderdaleand Inverarity, to 1980b) are callingfor moreattention objectivefactors. A second majorunresolvedproblemis that none of the collectivedefinitionof deviance approachesexplains why specific behaviorsare selected for deviance silent on this issue. Finally, In categorization. fact, the literatureis remarkably the approachesdiscussedabove do not yet explainwhy some deviancecreation effortsare unsuccessful. is in this contextthat we believe that resourcemobiliIt zation theory could prove valuable in the study of rule creationand deviance designation. Not only does it point toward relevantvariablesfor study, it also to providesan empiricalframework assess previousmovementsand predictthe successor failureof ongoingmovements. Any model or theory of deviance creation must addressthese issues. More into a more genspecifically,a way must be found to subsumethese differences eral model rendering theoreticalissues amenableto empiricalevaluation. Toward a Sociology of Knowledge Given its theoretical import, it seems to us that there have been inexplicably few 162 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY studiesof rule creation. Marxists,subsuming issue withinthe superstructure, the have focusedon the creationof laws whichmaintainruling-class privilege. Strain scholarstreat new rules as responsesto changedsocial conditions(new knowledge, Davis, 1975). Only process scholars have directly addressedthe issue, viewing collective definitionsof devianceas â€Å"emergent productsof an interpretive process† (Hawkins and Tiedman, 1975:340), but studies in this tradition have not produceda rigoroustheoreticalexplanation. Instead, isolated studies have been characterized descriptiveand idiosyncratic detail withoutconnecby or tion to socialstructure generalsocialprocesses. In theirstudyof the medicalization deviance,Conradand Schneider(1980) of a solutionto the interactionist the pose impasse. Although labeling-interactionist of perspectivepresentsus with the questionsto ask concerningthe development deviancedesignations,† they note (1980:20), â€Å"it is a sociologyof knowledgeapproachthat is necessaryto answerthem. â€Å"We thinkof the sociologyof knowledge knowlas a study of the materialbasis of social ideas, categories,designations, and so forth. From this frameworkthe dependentvariablechanges: no edge, longer do we studyth e deviantactor;ratherwe attemptto locate historicallythe origins and the social forces which supportedand opposed the definitionof the deviant category. As Friedsonhas stated, the analysisshouldnot focus on â€Å"the etiology of some state so much as the etiology of the meaningof a state. Thus it asks questionslike: How does a state come to be considereddeviant? How does it come to be considered kindof devianceratherthan another? † one (1970: 215-16). deviant To developtheirknowledgeapproach, Conradand Schneider interpret behaviorsas social constructionsof reality. Adopting Berger and Luckmann's as (1966) scheme,they view realityconstruction a social processof threestages: The processbegins with the and internalization. xternalization, objectification, of construction a culturalproductor definition a personor collectionof perby becomespartof the generallyacceptedbody sons, continuesas the new definition of knowledge,and concludesas the individualsin publictake the new definition for grantedas partof theirworldview. We applaudConradand Schneider's explicit sociologyof knowledgeand find their social constructionist approachinsig htful. Their analysisof the historical contribution a dimensionsof the medicalization deviancerepresents significant of in by placingdeviancedesignations the broadersocial context. At the sametime, we are uncomfortable with the apparentabsenceof a theoreticalmodel pointing to a more explicit method of data analysis. History is all aroundus; we need the guidanceto separate datafromthe noise. between In his Ideology and Utopia (1936), Karl Mannheimdistinguishes two types of sociologyof knowledge:†on the one hand a theoryand on the other hand an historical-sociological methodof research†(p. 266). As a theorywith the sociology of knowledgehas been pursuedvigepistemologicalimplications, orously. Its methodologicalimplicationshave, however, remainedunderdevelhimselflargelyignoredthe methodological aspectsof knowledge oped. Mannheim theory, though he did write that â€Å"the most important task of the sociology of knowledge at present is to demonstrate its capacity in actual research in the historical-sociological realm† (p. 306). The methodological implications of Mannheim's work have been pursued most CreatingDeviance Rules 163 rigorouslyby David Bloor in his 1976 book Knowledgeand Social Imagery. Bloor contendsthat our concernshouldbe phenomenological; method,howour scientific. Thesociologistis concernedwith knowlever, ought to be rigorously edge,† he writes, â€Å"purelyas a naturalphenomenon†¦ instead of definingit as true or false belief, knowledgefor the sociologist is whatevermen take to be knowledge†(p. 2). Given that knowledgeis relativeand historicallyunstable, Bloor's task is to elucidatethe materialbasis of its variation. To accomplishthis in task, he proposesa methodwhich he calls the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge,to wit, that our analysisought to be causal, impartial,and symmetrical. While sociologists would not want to argue that social factors are the sole cause of belief, they should focus on how social conditionsproduceand reflect belief. In demandingan approachwhich is â€Å"impartial with respectto truthand success or failure†(p. 5), Bloor is not advofalsity, rationalityor irrationality, catinga value neutralposition. The task is not to crownwinnersor punishlosers but to understandboth sides. In that sense, Bloor's sociology is agnostic. Ultito even irrelevant, mate truth,in any sense of the phrase,is seen as peripheral, the analysis. Finally the strong programdemandsa symmetrical analysis. Too often scholarshave attempted analyzedeviantand normalbeliefs from differto ent stances, the former needing special explanation,while the latter–seen as logical, rational,or truthful-are seen to need no specialexplanation. We are interestedin using the sociology of knowledgeas a methodological to guide, as a way of using historicalmaterials build rigorousmodels. In a sense, then, we use Mannheimand Bloor to build a theoreticalmethod for empirical methods,especiallyas it appliesto socialhistory, study. The notion of theoretical has been developedby Stinchcombe(1978; see also Graff, 1980). Good social theory, he asserts,must be groundedin historicaldata. â€Å"Peopledo much better the theory,†he argues,†wheninterpreting historicalsequencethanthey do when they set out to do ‘theory'† (p. 17) and â€Å"thatthe centraloperationfor building theories of history is seeking causally significantanalogiesbetween instances† of Thuswe aremost interested the methodological in implications the sociology of knowledge:as a way of pointingtowardvariables,as a way of using history, as a way-in short-of structuring analysis. Suchan analyticstrategy,as a macroand rigorousversionof groundedtheory,ought to allow us to relateprescopic vious theoriesof devianceand our data in an iterativesort of way and, thus, to build and evaluatea model of how deviantcategoriesare designated. A DialecticalModelof DevianceDesignation In attemptingto addressthe theoreticaland methodologicalissues raised, we propose a dialecticalmodel of deviance designation. The model, presentedin to however,it attempts transcend Figure1, is influenced resourcemobilization; by arany single theory. We begin with the assumptionthat within the structural is composedof a numberof generalinterestsin varying rangements, everysociety degreesof conflict. Such groupsmay be of varyingnature:with inclusiveor exin clusive membership, broad or narrowfocus. Their concernwith the definition (p. 7). Figure 1. A DialecticalModel of DevianceDefiniti General vested & other interests Definition i – +- Strain General vested & other interests S/ Specific interests CreatingDeviance Rules 165 question,however,is either peripheral,quiescent,or not effectivein the public arena. The initial or prevailingdefinitionof a behavioras acceptableor unacceptable representsthe outcome of previousspecific interestgroup conflict;in other words, the balanceof the resourcesthe two sides were able to mobilize. or This balance or accommodation becomes vulnerablewith the introduction increase of strain. This developmentprovides existing general interest groups with a new resourceand opportunity claims-making. for Specificinterestgroups towardthe specific (includingthe state) form,or mobilize,or becomeredirected issue in question. Faced with a challenge to their interests,groups benefiting from the prevailingdefinitionrespondby marshaling their own resources. The battle of these groups to maintainor change a rule is joined, the outcome dependingon the balance of the mobilizedresources. To speak of the â€Å"balanceof mobilized resources†should not be seen as merely suggestinga simplisticaccountingbalance. Of coursethe matteris muchmore complex. For example,the efficientemployment resources–usingresourcesin an arenawherethey have of maximal impact-may be just as importantas quantity. The net result is that over a periodof time, at time2,the originaldefinitionsurvivesor a new designation takesits place. for In explicatingthe model, we make the following arguments its utility in collectivedefinition deviance: of examining issues raisedin the 1. The model addressesor handlesmanyof the theoretical literature. For example, existing sociological explanations assign central importance to, or ignore, the role of strain. The dialectical model directs the scholar'sattentionto the role of strainbut does not preclude,in fact demands, examinationof other social processes. In addition,by viewing the state as an interestedparty, albeit a group with unique resources,it is possibleto examine official actions without assumingthe existence of an all powerfulmonolithical the definitional outcomes. Furthermore, modelpermitsanalysis entitydetermining and explanationof outcomeswhereneitherside achievestotal victory. in 2. The dialecticalmodel is consistentwith the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge. As Bloor (1976) has requested,this modelis causal,impartial, and symmetrical. Figure 1 is time ordered;that is, variablesappearin causal sequence with one another. Moreoverthese sequences are made explicit, thus data analysis. The model thus allowsfor attemptsat statisticalmodelfacilitating of processvariablesby techniquesdevelopedfrom social factisttraditions. ing The model treats deviance rule creationsas naturalphenomena. Whethera rule is good or bad is irrelevant our analysis. RecallingGusfield'sstudyof the to temperancemovement,the validityof analysiswas independentof truthclaims about alcohol. Whetherthe drug is actuallyan aphrodisiac,a depressant,or a tool of the devil was essentiallyirrelevantto his conclusions. Taking such an it agnosticpositionhas methodological implications: allowsfor the formalmodelvariables. Moreover,Bloor'slast dictum-that analysis ing of phenomenological be symmetrical–hasobvious implicationsfor the dialecticalmodel. Note that interestsfor or againstany definitionare handledin the same way, and have the same causal input into the model. 166 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY 3. The model is dialectical. The theoryis timelessand has no end stage. Figure 1 shows only one referenceframe. But upon acceptanceof â€Å"Definition2,† general vested or other interestsare alreadyin place, advocatingfor or againsta new definition. Though the theory is sequential,in the sense that it goes forwardin remainuntime, the units of time are not specified. Some deviancedesignations for long periods of time, others move more rapidlythroughstages of changed and vindication. Conradand Schneider,thinkingalong the same stigmatization of and demedicalization deviance the lines, have conceptualized medicalization as â€Å"cyclical†(1980:271). We preferto use the termdialectical,in that it leaves ratherthan suggestinga rethe directionof the next redefinition problematic as turnto an originalpoint. nor4. Deviance and normalcyare not distinctcategories. We conceptualize coordinatesystem. As a prescribed as a point in a multidimensional guide malcy for conduct, a rule designatesthe limits of space aroundthe point in which a behavioris seen as deviant. behavioris viewed as normal. Outsidethis boundary, Now we can justify using the terms â€Å"rulecreation†and â€Å"deviancedesignation† more or less synonymously. The formerrefersto the boundaryitself, whichmay be thick or fuzzy; the latter refers to the space outside the boundary. Any behavioralboundary,in our view, is subject to cultural,temporal,or situational between factorswhich continuously defineit, or redefineit. Thus is the boundary deviancy and normalcycontinuouslydrawnand redrawn,and a behavioralresituation,but ratherby definitionoccursnot by quantumleaps, as an â€Å"either-or† or pulled througha system of space. In the dialecticalmodel the being pushed as pushesor pulls aremanifested strainor process. and analyticintentions 5. The model is macroscopic. Our conceptualization the collectivelevel. We do not directlyconsider,for example,the are clearly at motivationsof an individualactor or leader. For two reasonswe down-playthe importof, or perhapseven ignore,such questionsas: Did leaderX makedecision or Y sincerelyor cynically? Is he or she a moralentrepreneur a typical (but not concernedsuburbanite? First,we doubt,in social factistlanguage, authoritarian) that such variablesexplainvery much variancein deviancedesignation. The individual,qua individual,role in collective, historicprocessesis always limited. To Our second reasonis methodological: the extentthat psychologicalvariables are important,how are they to be measuredor assessed? For historicalstudies, motivationseems particularly Secondarysources,as well as various problematic. kinds of documents,seem suspecthere. Even in contemporary settings,people's of their own or others'motivationsare not trustworthy, especiallygiven reports or the vested or strategicinterestswhich can be served by lying, exaggerating, selectivelyforgetting. Rather,we focus on such variablesas strainand resources over time. and which can be operationalized measuredcomparably 6. The dialecticalmodel uses history. The model invites, perhapseven demands, a given rule to be placed in historical context. Moreover the data needed to test the model are historical, preferably in time series, data. The model is shaped by these data and is thus grounded and inductive as Conrad and Schnei- CreatingDeviance Rules 167 der (1980:265) have suggested. In that sense the dialecticalmodel is meant to evaluate,as much as formallytest, historicalsequencesof data. 7. The model is conflictoriented,though not necessarilyMarxist. Many deviance designations,particularlythose formalizedas laws, are amenableto a Marxist analysis consistentwith the model. Large sums of money or other resources are often used by ruling elites for maintenanceof deviance definitions do or, less often, change. However,some deviancedefinitions not seem to fit the Marxistmodel (see Markle and Troyer, 1979, or Hagan and Leon, 1977, for two such case studies). In the dialecticalmodel, vested or other interests(religious, ethnic, sex, status,etc. ) can militatefor, and indeedbe successfulat, creat(uneming new definitionsof deviance. Similarlystrainmightbe substructural strain ployment,new technology,etc. ), but the model allows for superstructural (e. g. , new knowledge). Using the DialecticalModel As an inductivetheory,the true test of the dialecticalmodel is its utility. Let us and suggesta few ways, then, how the model mightbe operationalized used. We in begin with the concept of strain,which can be operationalized severalways. In our own researchon cigarettesmoking(Markleand Troyer,1979) and estrolegen replacements(McCrea and Markle, 1980), strainwas the appearance, or dissemination new knowledge; strainin our researchon Laetrile of gitimation, (Markle and Petersen, 1980) was, among other factors, an increasedconcern over cancer. As new health-related knowledgeclaims, strain can be measured with variousbibliometric techniques. A simple content analysisof relevantarticles, over a period of years, from Index Medicus can be used to chart such knowledgeclaims. The perceivedlegitimacyof such claims can be assessedby the professionalprestige of the author or journal. Finally, the entry of such knowledgeclaims into the public arena can be measuredusing the New York Times Index, which Jenkins and Perrow (1977) found highly effective,or by one of severalnewspaperdata banks (e. g. , Newsbank)now in existence. After looking at strain,it is easy enoughto identifyspecificinterestsinvolved in redefinition. Such organizations groups will have appearedas recipients, or sponsors,aggrievedparties,etc. , in news accountsor scholarlycitation. The resources of these groups can be measuredin severalways. The Encyclopediaof Associations, updated almost yearly, lists purportedmembershipsand other for simple demographics manysuchgroups. Moreover,most interestgroupshave which are usuallyeasy to obtain, often at literatureor even regularpublications no cost. When interests are corporate,much informationon resourcescan be gleaned from annual reports or, with somewhatmore effort, from regulatory In agenciessuch as the Securitiesand ExchangeCommission. ase studieswhere is an interestedparty, vast amounts of official statistics may be government available (see, e. g. , Markle and Troyer, 1979). Moreover,the researchercan use the Freedomof Information Act to obtain a deep windowinto government actions and resourcesin variousdeviancedesignations. Throughpublic records and other availabledata, every conce pt in the dialecticalmodel can be operationalized. Indeed,to measureresourcesin comparable ways, we have suggested of the development a researchprotocol (Markleand Petersen,1981). 168 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY A Final Word iancearecreated changed, beenneglected socialtheory research. and or in has We believethat neglectcomes from theoretical The misdirection. dialectical thesedifficulties. to model,whichis knowledge based,is ourattempt ameliorate Becauseit attempts integrate traditional the theoryinvites to two approaches, both philosophical- empirical-based and criticisms. Thoughwe welcomethe we The in interested thelatter. realtestof thedialectical former, areparticularly modelis whether works. it Andwhether not it workscan onlybe judged or by it holdingit up to the lightof, and adjudicating with,historicaland contemporary A crucialelementof social change and conflict,why and how definitionsof de- research. REFERENCES Barnes, Barry. 1974. ScientificKnowledgeand SociologicalTheory. London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul. 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