Auditory processing in Speech Production

Auditory processing in Speech Production The integration of auditory feedback from self generated speech sounds into upcoming motor commands is important for the stability and control of speech production. For example, children with profound hearing impairment experience greater difficulty acquiring and maintaining speech than their normal hearing peers (Campisi, Low, Papsin, Mount, Harrison, 2006; Kishon-Rabin, Taitelbaum-Swead, Ezrati-Vinacour, Hildesheimer, 2005; Moeller, Hoover, Putman, Arbataitis, Bohnenkamp, Peterson, Lewis et al., 2007; Moeller, Hoover, Putman, Arbataitis, Bohnenkamp, Peterson, Wood et al., 2007). Also, adults with acquired hearing loss show a gradual degradation of their previously proficient articulatory ability that is partially restored after cochlear implantation (Kishon-Rabin, Taitelbaum, Tobin, Hildesheimer, 1999). The importance of auditory feedback for speech motor control in normal speakers has been demonstrated via perturbation studies. Various studies have shown the compensatory impact perturbing the volume (Bauer, Mittal, Larson, Hain, 2006), pitch (Burnett, Senner, Larson, 1997), phonetic accuracy (Houde Jordan, 1998) and timing (Jones Striemer, 2007) of auditory feedback has on the kinematic and acoustic outcomes of speech production in normal speakers. Computational neural network models of speech production have also been used to demonstrate the importance of auditory feedback for articulatory control (Guenther, Husain, Cohen, Shinn-Cunningham, 1999; Perkell et al., 2000). Perturbing the timing of auditory feedback in people who are fluent is known to induce a variety of articulation disturbances. Specifically, delayed auditory feedback varied between 200 ms and 400 ms during reading aloud results in a reduced number of correct words, increased total reading time, monosyllabic sound substitutions, omissions, insertions and additions including repetitions (Fairbanks, 1955; Fairbanks Guttman, 1958; B. S. Lee, 1950; B. S. Lee, 1951; Stuart, Kalinowski, Rastatter, Lynch, 2002; Yates, 1963). Conversely, delayed auditory feedback has been shown to positively influence speech fluency in people who stutter (Adamczyk, 1959; Kalinowski, Stuart, Sark, Armson, 1996; Ryan Van Kirk, 1974; Soderberg, 1968; Stuart, Kalinowski, Armson, Stenstrom, Jones, 1996; Stuart, Kalinowski, Rastatter, 1997). The degree of fluency enhancement varies depending on a number of variables (e.g. delay duration, feedback intensity), the context and the individual (Armson, Kiefte, Ma son, DeCroos, 2006; Wingate, 1970). As a result of the variable responses reported in the literature, the clinical effectiveness of altered auditory feedback as a treatment tool remains controversial (Antipova, Purdy, Blakeley, Williams, 2008; Lincoln, Packman, Onslow, 2006; ODonnell, Armson, Kiefte, 2008; Pollard, Ellis, Finan, Ramig, 2009; Stuart, Kalinowski, Rastatter, Saltuklaroglu, Dayalu, 2004; Stuart, Kalinowski, Saltuklaroglu, Guntupalli, 2006; Wingate, 1970). The basis for the variable response of adults who stutter to delayed auditory feedback is not known. Various theories have been put forward to describe how delayed auditory feedback induces fluent speech in some individuals who stutter. It has been proposed that delayed auditory feedback results in speech improvement by forcing the person who stutters to assume a new pattern of speech movement (Goldiamond, 1965). The new pattern is claimed to be established and maintained via operant learning principles with the delayed auditory feedback functioning as aversive negative reinforcement. As pointed out by Wingate (1970), the conceptualization of this process is unclear and incomplete. However, there is some evidence to support the claim that a new speech pattern is learned (Ryan Van Kirk, 1974). It has also been proposed that the delayed auditory feedback is corrective in nature thereby improving fluency. However, the contrary that delayed auditory feedback is distorted feedback seems to be obvious (Wingate, 1970). Some authors have posited that the key to delayed auditory feedback’s effectiveness is the reduction of meaningful feedback (Wingate, 1970) denying the person who stutters the ability to rely on this potentially inefficient control system. This assertion is somewhat supported by the observation that masking of auditory feedback also induces fluent speech in some individuals who stutter (Sutton Chase, 1961; Wingate, 1970). Lastly, it has been proposed that delayed auditory feedback is effective because of the tendency of individuals to slow their speech rate, prolong vowel duration and increase vocal intensity and fundamental frequency (Wingate, 1970). However, changes to speech characteristics such as a slower rate cannot be the only reason that delayed auditory feedback is effective, as it has been demonstrated to have similar fluency enhancing effects even at fast rates of speech (Kalinowski et al., 1996; Stuart et al., 2002). The effects of altered auditory feedback on speech fluency in people who stutter demonstrate the importance of auditory processing in the disorder. Advancing our understanding of the role auditory processing plays in the speech production of people who stutter may begin to elucidate the mechanisms behind fluency inducing altered auditory feedback. 1.5.2 Auditory processing in normal and stuttered speech production: Behavioural studies of auditory processing in adults and children who stutter have yielded evidence of central auditory processing differences in these populations relative to fluent age-matched peers. Rousey, Goetzinger and Dirks (1959) reported that 20 stuttering children showed below normal performance on sound localization. Lack of sound localization skills may be indicative of temporal lobe disorders (Jerger, Wekers, Sharbrough, Jerger, 1969). Various studies have employed batteries of audiometric tests to behaviourally evaluate central auditory processing in adults children who stutter. Rousey, Goetzinger and Dirks (1959) reported that 20 stuttering children showed below normal performance on sound localization. Hall and Jerger (1978) reported that adults who stutter performed poorly relative to fluent adults on a subset of such tests. They concluded that the results suggested the presence of a subtle central auditory processing deficit in adults who stutter. Anderson, Hood an d Sellers (1988) conducted a similar study and found that adolescents who stuttered performed poorly on only one subtest as compared to a group of age-matched control participants. They similarly concluded that if a deficit exists it is subtle. Evidence of a subtle central auditory processing deficit has also been demonstrated in children who stutter. For example, children who stutter have been found to have higher thresholds on backward masking tasks than children who do not stutter (Howell, Rosen, Hannigan, Rustin, 2000). Howell et al. also found a positive correlation between backward masking thresholds and stuttering severity in children who stutter. In a follow-up study Howell and Williams (2004) investigated children who stutter on a battery of audiometric tests including backward masking tasks. Based on the profile of performance on the audiometric battery of tests, Howell et al. (2004) reached the conclusion that children who stutter had a different developmental pattern of central auditory processing abilities relative to their fluently speaking age-matched peers but they did not specify the nature of that difference. More recently, central auditory functioning was evaluated behaviourally and with electroencephalography in adults who stutter (Hampton Weber-Fox, 2008). Behaviourally, adults who stutter performed less accurately and demonstrated longer reaction times in response to the prompt tone in a standard oddball paradigm. However, a small subgroup of adults who stutter was found to be driving the results. The same subgroup of poor performing adults who stutter also demonstrated abnormal evoked auditory waveforms. Hampton and Weber-Fox (2008) concluded that this subgroup demonstrated deficient non-linguistic auditory processing. Objective tests like AEPs are valid and useful measures to study auditory processing in persons with stuttering as they reflect changes in auditory system as stimuli is processed.

Grammar Should be Secondary for Composition Teachers Essay -- informati

I have a knack for creating a series of run-on sentences and calling them an essay. I have a knack for beginning sentences with And or But. I also have a writing degree. I still have not mastered the use of the comma and somehow the Academy granted me that little piece of paper anyway. You, reader, may be wondering my point. My point is this: that despite my ill-formed paragraphs and run-on sentences I have existed and prospered within the formal writing environment. And so, I was elated to read Patrick Hartwell’s essay that contests that teaching grammar has a negligible effect on the development of a student writer (183). Clearly, there are different types of grammar, which Hartwell distinguishes in his essay. Borrowing from Francis’ â€Å"The Three Meanings of Grammar,† and his lengthy definition of grammar in three parts, Hartwell extends to the five categories of grammar. In dissecting grammar, Hartwell divides and conquers the argument that formal grammatical training is of great use to a developing writer. Instead, Hartwell sees grammar as a recognition tool, a way to keep the writer and reader on the same page. It is a tool of orientation rather than a prerequisite for â€Å"good writing.† Harvey Davis, an author I found by way of Hartwell’s end-notes, makes a great distinction between the necessity of grammar texts for educators and students. In his book, Famous Last Words: The American Language Crisis Reconsidered, Daniels recognizes that grammar books, â€Å"while they may be good for the publishing business, and may comfort anxious teachers, they are unlikely to help students much† (241). Books devoted to the teaching of grammar or the integration of grammar into writing programs simply create names for lessons and rules alread... ...n of all threads of thought, with a process of shaping afterwards. Grammar lay waiting for the guillotine in the arena of composition. The main concern of any composition teacher, as well as his students, should be the production of writing. Since the rules are so flexible and easily changed for matters of style, grammar should be an afterthought, rather than a pre-writing tool. To take writing time away from our students and force them to familiarize themselves with formal grammar does them a disservice. Bibliography Daniels, Harvey. Famous Last Words: The American Language Crisis Reconsidered. Edwardsville, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1983. Hartwell, Patrick. â€Å"Grammar, Grammars, and the Teaching of Grammar.† Cross-Talk in Comp Theory: A Reader. ed. Victor Villanueva, Jr. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1997. 183-212 Grammar Should be Secondary for Composition Teachers Essay -- informati I have a knack for creating a series of run-on sentences and calling them an essay. I have a knack for beginning sentences with And or But. I also have a writing degree. I still have not mastered the use of the comma and somehow the Academy granted me that little piece of paper anyway. You, reader, may be wondering my point. My point is this: that despite my ill-formed paragraphs and run-on sentences I have existed and prospered within the formal writing environment. And so, I was elated to read Patrick Hartwell’s essay that contests that teaching grammar has a negligible effect on the development of a student writer (183). Clearly, there are different types of grammar, which Hartwell distinguishes in his essay. Borrowing from Francis’ â€Å"The Three Meanings of Grammar,† and his lengthy definition of grammar in three parts, Hartwell extends to the five categories of grammar. In dissecting grammar, Hartwell divides and conquers the argument that formal grammatical training is of great use to a developing writer. Instead, Hartwell sees grammar as a recognition tool, a way to keep the writer and reader on the same page. It is a tool of orientation rather than a prerequisite for â€Å"good writing.† Harvey Davis, an author I found by way of Hartwell’s end-notes, makes a great distinction between the necessity of grammar texts for educators and students. In his book, Famous Last Words: The American Language Crisis Reconsidered, Daniels recognizes that grammar books, â€Å"while they may be good for the publishing business, and may comfort anxious teachers, they are unlikely to help students much† (241). Books devoted to the teaching of grammar or the integration of grammar into writing programs simply create names for lessons and rules alread... ...n of all threads of thought, with a process of shaping afterwards. Grammar lay waiting for the guillotine in the arena of composition. The main concern of any composition teacher, as well as his students, should be the production of writing. Since the rules are so flexible and easily changed for matters of style, grammar should be an afterthought, rather than a pre-writing tool. To take writing time away from our students and force them to familiarize themselves with formal grammar does them a disservice. Bibliography Daniels, Harvey. Famous Last Words: The American Language Crisis Reconsidered. Edwardsville, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1983. Hartwell, Patrick. â€Å"Grammar, Grammars, and the Teaching of Grammar.† Cross-Talk in Comp Theory: A Reader. ed. Victor Villanueva, Jr. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1997. 183-212

Educating Rita by Willy Russell Essay -- A Play By Willy Russell

Educating Rita by Willy Russell â€Å" How do the characters of Frank and Rita change throughout the play and what is Russell’s purpose of using the technique?† Educating Rita is a play written by Willy Russell who was born in Liverpool, Whiston. â€Å"I really don’t want to write plays which are resigned, menopausal, despairing and whining. I don’t want to use any medium as a platform for displaying the smallness and hopelessness of man.† Willy Russell wrote Educating Rita as a comedy, he wanted to write a funny play to be watched and not to be studied. Coming from a working class family and society, he witnessed a deep injustice in the way lower classes were treated. Even though people who were working class had wonderful qualities, they were often regarded as worthless. In Educating Rita there are two classes, the lower class that is represented by Rita and the upper class represented by Frank. Russell reveals that although both characters come from different classes, they can both learn from each other. In this play there are only two characters. Although many other people are important to the play, Rita and Frank are the central characters. Rita is a 26-year-old woman who has decided to take a course in English Literature at the Open University. Frank, who is in his early fifties, is Rita’s tutor at the University. From the first opening scene we immediately see that Frank has a drinking problem, as he hides bottles of alcohol behind books in his study. Frank is in his study on the phone to his girlfriend to whom we can see he does not like much â€Å"†¦yes just pop off and put your head in the oven†¦Ã¢â‚¬  At the start of Act 1 Frank shows that he is uninterested in Rita, prejudges her and thinks that she ... ... one she leaves behind. She does pay a price, by leaving Danny and not having a baby yet, she gets what she want’s, an education. In the play, education is portrayed as a game when they are in the university – not going there for the need of an education but to acquire the lifestyle that an ‘educated’ person would so. Frank doesn’t know this game, but Rita does and at the end of the play she realises what it has done to her. At the beginning of the play she is an ‘uneducated’ woman, who knows little about academic things but has a lot of experience about life. She doesn’t value the knowledge which she already has much. She throws away her old life and what she gets back - Frank thinks- is much less valuable. But to Rita, education is a way out of mediocrity into a superior lifestyle. The tragedy is that she pays for it by becoming a different person.

Vouchers and School Choice Meet the Needs of Parents Essay -- Argument

School Choice Meets the Needs of Parents Parents are requesting the ability to choose a school for their children as a means towards legitimate objectives. "The parents are saying that they are not going to tolerate their children being miseducated any more, and that they are the ones who ultimately responsible for what happens for their children". (Milwaukee Parental Choice program). "Parents are using the scholarships to meet a number of needs, including high academic standards; safety; discipline; and moral environment".(Following The Teachers' Lead). The bad situation at many of the public schools encourages parents to look for other public or private schooling for their children. "Dire condition of too many today's public schools, especially in inner cities where disadvantaged families have no alternatives and where the students are stuck in failing schools because of where they live."(Unleashing Pent-up Demand). "The quality of of public education is low relative to the quality of private one. For example, only two high schools in Chicago public school system are ranked in the top 100 high schools in Chicago metropolitan area based upon their ACT scores".(Chicago Tribune, January 1,1994). "In the past four years, New Jersey powered more than $100 million in the city's schools system -despite this, fewer than half of the nine graders pass the state proficiency exam".(Choice in Action) "Those who know the school best - the teachers -in America's troubled cities are two or three times as likely as the public at large to use privat e schools".(Following The Teacher's Lead). A good indication on the success of the program its expansion year after year ever since it was initiated . "Milwaukee, ... ...out strong students in terms of standard of achievements. However the idea is to give chance to all choose the appropriate school for their children. Administrations and teachers of schools characterized with not accepted standards of performance should be aware that their schools are going to close eventually and they will loose their jobs. We care for standard and quality of learning for our children; school choice is improving standard and quality. We care for accountability; school choice implies a warning that schools which don't guarantee a minimum standard of achievement for its students will be subject to public accountability. We care for the cost ; it looks that on the long run, the cost per student on the basis of school choice will be less than the cost per student in public schools. Accordingly I would support school choice.

Four Great Revolutions in Philosophy Essay

Throughout the history of the universe, there have been revolutions that shaped the history of the world. However, none have had such a great impact as the four great revolutions in thought and religion. Included, are the philosophy of China, religion in India, religion of the Jews, and Greek Philosophy. They all have many things in common, but each are unique as well. The four great revolutions occurred in or near original river valley systems, and they were all born through a crisis. Each of the reformations is responsible for much of the cultural history of the world, because once the cultural pattern was set, it endured. Finally, it all began when people started to question their existence. When the, relatively speaking, â€Å"modern† philosophy of the east was created, China was going through a crisis. New territorial states were replacing the traditional city-states. Peasant armies with new technology were replacing old nobility. The old etiquette and old rituals were crumbling. People yearned for a new, peaceful society. Thus, Confucianism was born. Confucius was born in 551 BCE in northeast China. He was educated and was a member of the lower-nobility. When Confucius was young, his father died, so he knew what it was like to be without. Confucius didn’t believe in an afterlife, and in the Analects, he was quoted as saying, â€Å"How can you understand death if you cannot understand life?† Later in life, he became a traveling teacher, trying to persuade rulers to buy his ideas to return society back to the times of the Chou Dynasty, where everyone in society had a role to play. These roles consisted of five relationships: Ruler to subject, father to son, husband to wife, older brother to younger brother, and friend to friend. Confucius believed that if everyone stood to their position, society would be in harmony. However, when the well-being of a society depends on individuals living up to their responsibilities, things can go wrong fairly quickly. It became obvious that returning to the Chou Dynasty was impossible. By the time Confucius died, in 479 BCE, he was unable to find a ruler to accept his  teachings, but one thing made sense to the people. The ability to have a good government is dependent on the appointment of good men. This is evident in American society today when we elect a new President every four years. Another revolution took place about fifty years earlier in India. In 600 BCE, India had a priest-centered, cult dominated upper-class that controlled society. They had elaborate animal sacrifices, and believed in magic. In an attempt to bring more people into participation, a group called the Upanishads began to propose meditation on the meaning of ritual. They had two main emphases: 1) Knowledge was over ritual and immortality was escaping afterlife, and 2) â€Å"From the unreal, lead me to the real. From death, lead me to immortality,† which reverts the emphasis back to knowledge. Gods were merely a part of the total scheme. The Upanishads believed that life was a never-ending cycle between life and death. Life after death was known as samsara. The key to resolving samsara is karma (work or action) in which the goal is to have more good deed than bad deeds. There were two basic ways to achieve this goal. First, one sought to maximize good, and minimize bad. Second, a person should seek liberation from existence, escaping all karmic effects. This, when followed out completely, resulted in escaping action itself. This brings us to the Jains. An Indian man named Mahavira found and taught â€Å"the way† to save the soul from its karmic bonds. Jains believed that there is no beginning or end to existence. They believed that the universe was alive and had infinite souls that were all trapped in samsara. Words and deeds have a reaction, and one must take care of everything. Mahavira’s focus was to eliminate evil thought and act that was especially harmful of others. He isolated himself for twelve years, meditating, until he found true enlightenment. When thinking of â€Å"enlightened ones,† many would think of Buddha. Buddhism was â€Å"India’s greatest contribution to religion.† Siddhartha Gautama is the most renowned Buddha. He was born in 566 BCE into an upper-class, if not noble, family. As Siddhartha grew older, he began to think about aging, sickness,  and death. He was disgusted by his sensual desires and sensual pleasures he obtained from the material world, so he set out to find an end to the endless cycle of existence. It is said that Siddhartha Gautama sat under a Bodh tree, smoked, meditated, and found the answer. He then devoted the rest of his life to teaching others his findings, known as The Middle Path. The Middle Path is the core to Buddhist faith and practice, and begins with Four Noble Truths: 1) All of life is suffering, 2) The source of suffering is desiring, 3) The cessation of desiring is the way to end suffering, and 4) The path to the end is eight-fold. The fourth truth is not just metaphorically speaking. The Eight-Fold Path consists of the following: Right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. The emphasis on Buddhism was compassion. The goal, through The Four Noble Truths, was to attain nirvana (extinguishing all karmic bonds). To succeed in this, one had to give up many things, so there were very few willing to make the sacrifice. There was no deity. If one just stopped wanting, he or she would stop suffering. Now we come to the first big difference in thought and religion; the religion of the Jews. The Hebrews tried to create a monotheistic life from a polytheistic society. They believed that there was one universal creator/sustainer of the universe, and that was God. All things were linked to God’s â€Å"divine plan.† There were two central ideas to Judaism. First, significance of history on the divine plan. Second, the idea of God (justice and goodness). God was righteous, so he expected humans to be also. He demanded moral behavior. God’s â€Å"divine plan† included a man named Abraham, who is considered the patriarch of the Jews, Christians and Muslims. Abraham made a covenant with God that if Abraham and all of his children would worship God alone, then God would protect them. The final Great Revolution took a central â€Å"god† and threw in many different  gods. Greek Philosophy offered different approaches and answers to the same concerns as original monotheists. The Greeks were logical. They looked at the universe as a whole. They investigated cures for sicknesses and didn’t rely solely on the gods for healing. During the mid-fifth century BCE, an influential debate began with professional teachers, called Sophists. They received pay for teaching persuasion and rhetoric, which were very highly valued in Ancient Athenian Society. Sophists preached on the nature of the polis (city-state). This was when the crisis began. All philosophers were concerned that everything was falling apart, because of outsiders. The Sophists argued that the law was in accordance with nature. If everyone followed the law, the polis would be fine and protected. This sounds much like Confucius’ idealistic belief that people could just stay in one role and be happy in that relationship. It is quite obvious that there have been revolutions that shaped the history of the world. However, none have had such a great impact as the four great revolutions in thought and religion. Included, are the philosophy of China, religion in India, religion of the Jews, and Greek Philosophy. They all have many things in common, but each are unique as well. The four great revolutions occurred in or near original river valley systems, and they were all born through a crisis. Each of the reformations is responsible for much of the cultural history of the world, because once the cultural pattern was set, it endured. Finally, it all began when people started to question their existence.

Should We Have Gone to War in Iraq Persausive Essay

Operation Iraqi Freedom How many people do you know that have fought in the United States most recent war? This war was called Operation Iraqi Freedom. Many people have family members that fought in this war, or maybe a neighbor. The Iraq war was started shortly after 9/11 when the United States felt that Iraq leader Saddam Hussein had weapons of Mass Destruction. (WMD’s) With the rumor that Iraq had WMD’s President Bush felt the US military had to go on the offense to assure the safety of the country. With that in mind I agree with going to war in Iraq. Also, Saddam Hussein was also rumored to be supporting and housing terrorists and members of Al-Qaeda in Iraq. Finally, Saddam Hussein committed many acts of violence against the Iraqi people that he reigned over with an iron fist. Although many people don’t feel that we should have gone to war in Iraq because some Iraqi people didn’t want the troops there, and because many troops were killed, I feel that war in Iraq was the right thing to do so that people throughout the world and the United States could be kept safe. First, Saddam Hussein was thought to be aiding various terrorist groups that don’t like the United States very much. Many people in President Bush’s cabinet and administration felt that Saddam Hussein was aiding the terrible terrorist group Al-Qaeda, which was the terrorist group responsible for the thousands of deaths in the US on 9/11. With no financial evidence of aiding Al-Qaeda, there is evidence of Saddam helping other terrorist groups. It has been reported that Hussein would give money to the families of Palestinians killed in conflict. He was known to give up to $25,000 to the families of suicide bomber, which many of these bombers were working for militants groups like Hamas. The United States could not let someone who was supporting terrorism stay in power. Second, the United States had to go to war with Iraq, to get Saddam Hussein out of power after the many violent acts he committed over his reign in Iraq. One of these terrible acts of violence was after an assassination attempt on Hussein’s life. While riding through the city of Dujail, an attempt on Hussein’s life was made by Shiite militants. Saddam Hussein decided that he need to wipe out the entire city of Dujail, which had 148 residents, including dozens upon dozens of children. These were the crimes that Saddam Hussein brought up on and eventually executed for. Hussein’s worst acts came in the years 1986-1989. In these years his administration called for an extermination of any living thing in the northern Kurdish region. In this time Hussein killed 182,000 Kurds using chemical weapons to kill many of them. As you can see the United States could no longer have this man ruling an entire country. Finally, rumored WMD’s were the biggest reason the United States decided to go to war. After many years of the UN searching for these weapons Iraq decided not to let inspectors into the country anymore. The Bush administration took these signals as Iraq and Hussein not wanting the UN to find the weapons of mass destruction. Before the invasion, and before inspectors were banned from Iraq, rocket warheads, 50 liters of mustard gas, and 50 missiles were decommissioned. These things gave Bush administration a strong feeling that Saddam Hussein was hiding WMD’s from the rest of the world. Although no WMD’s were found during the war, I still feel that going into Iraq was the right decision. There was no way we could let there be rumors about Saddam Hussein having WMD with what he has done to people with them in the past. Saddam Hussein was a terrible dictator that killed many people with chemical weapons. When he was rumored again to have weapons, the Bush administration decided it was time to act against Hussein. They had to make sure the evil dictator didn’t have any WMD’s. In doing this the Bush administration and the brave soldier of the US military protected the lives of many people in the Middle East and maybe the lives of many here in the United States. â€Å"The War Crimes of Saddam Hussein. † Civil Liberties at About. com – Your Guide to Civil Liberties News and Issues. Web. 31 Dec. 2011. http://civilliberty. about. com/od/internationalhumanrights/p/saddam_hussein. htm â€Å"Rationale for the Iraq War. † Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 31 Dec. 2011. .http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Rationale_for_the_Iraq_War#Human_rights

Structured Cabling

1. What industry standards body and standards series numbers do you need to reference for Ethernet applications and cabling? The IEEE maintains the industry standards for Ethernet Protocols (or applications). This is part of the 802.3 series of standards and includes applications such as 1000Base-T, 1000Base-SX, 10GBase-T, and 10GBase-SR.2. What are the different types of category 6 cables and what should be recommended this network? Category 6 and category 6A are the types of cables; I would recommend Cat 6A cable over Cat 6 because cat 6A also supports 10Gbps which is for future speed.3. What cable would you recommend to offer the best shielding performance? You need STP or FIBER OPTIC cable to provide best shielding performance, optic fiber is expensive not easy to terminate ends and has no RFI EMI, whereas shielded twisted pair is easy and cheap.4. What type of cable would you use for the horizontal spaces and vertical links? Cat6 is the current standard for new installations of Ethernet cable. Depending on the space and certain building codes you need to decide between Plenum (CMP) or Riser (CMR). The difference being Riser cable is more durable, but puts out toxic fumes when caught on fire, so it is not suitable for spaces with open air flow. Dropped ceilings are generally considered Plenum spaces so therefore require plenum cable.5. What would you look for in trying to find fault if you had the following next and fext problems in 1Gbps links and difficulty meeting 10Gbps performance requirements? When finding fault in NEXT; the crosstalk is usually detected or found at the same end of the cable generating the signal and it is most common between 60 and 90 feet of the transmitter.In the other hand, when finding faults in FEXT the crosstalk occurs in the other end (opposite) of the cable. the problem is usually too many twists in the  cable; Alien Crosstalk (AXT) as the signal rate increase in a cable, this is a major source of interference, and a limiti ng factor, for running 10GBase-T (10Gbps) over UTP cabling. This kind of crosstalk usually â€Å"occurs when the signal being carried in one cable interferes with the signal being carried in â€Å"another cables†.TermsOsi- (Open Systems Interconnection) this is a standard description or â€Å"reference Model† for how messages should be transmitted between any two points in a telecommunication network. Its purpose is to guide product implementers so that their products will consistently work with other products. The reference model defines seven layers of functions that take place at each end of a communication. Although OSI is not always strictly adhered to in terms of keeping related functions together in a well-defined layer, many if not most products involved in telecommunication make an attempt to describe them in relation to the OSI model. It is also valuable as a single reference view of communication that furnishes everyone a common ground for education and dis cussion.Developed by representatives of major computer and telecommunication companies beginning in 1983, OSI was originally intended to be a detailed specification of interfaces. Instead, the committee decided to establish a common reference model for which others could develop detailed interfaces that in turn could become standards. OSI was officially adopted as an international standard by the International Organization of Standards (ISO). Currently, it is Recommendation X.200 of the ITU-TS. The main idea in OSI is that the process of communication between two end points in a telecommunication network can be divided into layers, with each layer adding its own set of special, related functions.Each communicating user or program is at a computer equipped with these seven layers of function. So, in a given message between users, there will be a flow of data through each layer at one end down through the layers in that computer and, at the other end, when the message arrives, another flow of data up through the layers in the receiving computer and ultimately to the end user or program. The actual programming and hardware that furnishes these seven layers of function is usually a combination of the computer  operating system, applications (such as your Web browser), TCP/IP or alternative transport and network protocols, and the software and hardware that enable you to put a signal on one of the lines attached to your computer.The 7 Standard Tcp/IPLayer 7: The application layer†¦This is the layer at which communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified. (This layer is not the application itself, although some applications may perform application layer functions.) Layer 6: The presentation layer†¦This is a layer, usually part of an operating system, that converts incoming and outgoing data from one presentation format to another (f or example, from a text stream into a popup window with the newly arrived text). Sometimes called the syntax layer.Layer 5: The session layer†¦This layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogs between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination. Layer 4: The transport layer†¦This layer manages the end-to-end control (for example, determining whether all packets have arrived) and error-checking. It ensures complete data transfer. Layer 3: The network layer†¦This layer handles the routing of the data (sending it in the right direction to the right destination on outgoing transmissions and receiving incoming transmissions at the packet level). The network layer does routing and forwarding.Layer 2: The data-link layer†¦This layer provides synchronization for the physical level and does bit-stuffing for strings of 1's in excess of 5. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management. Lay er 1: The physical layer†¦This layer conveys the bit stream through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier.